
























































































































FARM DRAINAGE. 


THE 

PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES, AND EFFECTS 

o P 

DRAINING LAND 

WITH STONES, WOOD, PLOWS, AND OPEN DITCHES, 

AND ESPECIALLY WITH TILES; 

INCLUDING 

TABLES OF RAIN-FALL, 

EVAPORATION, FILTRATION, EXCAVATION, CAPACITY OF PIPES ; COST AND NUMBER 

TO THE ACRE, OF TILES, &C., &C., 

• ’ •' 

AND MORE THAN IOO ILLUSTRATIONS. 



HENRY F. FRENCH. 


“Read, not to contradict and to confute, nor to believe and take for granted, but to 
weigh and consider.”— Bacon. 

“ TnE first Farmer was the first man, and all nobility rests on the possession and use 
of land.”— Emerson. 


Ncto Yorft: 

A. O. MOORE & CO., 

AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHERS, 140 FULTON STREET. 

1859. 





Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, 

By HENRY F. FRENCH, 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the 

Southern District of New York. 












TO 

%\t f ontrratle ^intern §wton } 

of Massachusetts, 

A Lover of Agriculture, and a Progressive Farmer, 
whose Words and Works are so well devoted to Improve the Condition 

of Those who Cultivate the Earth, 
this Book is Inscribed, as a Testimonial of Kespect and Personal Esteem, 

by his Friend and Brother, 

The Author 


i 

























































• - 






PREFACE. 


The Agriculture of America has seemed to me to de¬ 
mand some light upon the subject of Drainage; some 
work, which, with an exposition of the various theories, 
should give the simplest details of the practice, of draining 
land. This treatise is an attempt to answer that demand, 
and to give to the farmers of our country, at the same 
time, enough of scientific principles to satisfy intelligent 
inquiry, and plain and full directions for executing work 
in the field, according to the best known rules. It has 
been my endeavor to show what lands in America require 
drainage, and how to drain them best, at least expense; 
to explain how the theories and the practice of the Old 
World require modification for the cheaper lands, the 
dearer labor, and the various climate of the New; and, 
finally, to suggest how, through improved implements and 
processes, the inventive genius of our country may make 
the brain assist and relieve the labor of the hand. 

With some hope that my humble labors, in a field so 
broad, may not have entirely failed of their object, this 
work is offered to the attention of American farmers. 

H. F. F. 

The Pines, Exeter, N. H., March, 1859. 


















. • - 






. 




























. 











CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Wiiy this Treatise does not contain all Knowledge.—Attention of Scientific 
Men attracted to Drainage.—Lieutenant Maury’s Suggestions.—Ralph 
Waldo Emerson’s Views.—Opinions of J. H. Klippart, Esq.; of Professor 
Mapes; B. P. Johnson, Esq. ; Governor Wright, Mr. Custis, &c.—Preju¬ 
dice against what is English.—Acknowledgements to our Friends at 
Home and Abroad.—The Wants of our Farmers. 


CHAPTER II. 

HISTORY OF THE ART OF DRAINING. 

Draining as old as the Deluge.—Roman Authors.—Walter Bligh in 1650.— 
No thorough drainage till Smith, of Deanston.—No mention of Tiles in the 
“ Compleat Body of Husbandry,” l^S.—Tiles found 100 years old.— 
Elkington’s System. — Johnstone’s Puns and Peripatetics.—Draining 
Springs.—Bletonism, or the Faculty of Perceiving Subterranean Water.— 
Deanston System.—Views of Mr. Parkes.—Keythorpe System.—Wharn- 
cliffe System.—Introduction of Tiles into America.—John Johnston, and 
Mr. Delafield, of New York. 

CHAPTER III. 

RAIN, EVAPORATION, AND FILTRATION. 

Fertilizing Substances in Rain Water.—Amount of Rain Fall in United 
States; in England.—Tables of Rain Fall.—Number of Rainy Days, and 
Quantity of Rain each Month.—Snow, how Computed as Water.—Pro¬ 
portion of Rain Evaporated.—What Quantity of Water Dry Soil will Hold. 
—Dew Point.—How Evaporation Cools Bodies.—Artificial Heat Under¬ 
ground.—Tables of Filtration and Evaporation. 

• • 

VU 



Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER IY. 

DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS—WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE. 

What is High Land?—Accidents to Crops from Water.—Do Lands need 
Drainage in America ?—Springs.—Theory of Moisture, with Illustrations. 
—Water of Pressure.—Legal Rights as to Draining our Neighbor’s Wells 
and Land.—What Lands require Drainage ?—Horace Greeley’s Opinion.— 
Drainage more Necessary in America than in England; Indications of too 
much Moisture.—Will Drainage Pay? 

CHAPTER Y. 

VARIOUS METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 

Open Ditches.—Slope of Banks.—Brush Drains.—Ridge and Furrow.—Plug- 
Draining.—Mole-Draiuing.—Mole-Plow.—Wedge and Shoulder Drains.— 
Larch Tubes.—Drains of Fence Rails, and Poles.—Peat Tiles.—Stone 
Drains Injured by Moles.—Downing’s Giraffes.—Illustrations of Various 
Kinds of Stone Drains. 


CHAPTER YI. 

DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 

What are Drain-Tiles?—Forms of Tiles.—Pipes.—Horse-shoe Tiles.—Sole- 
Tiles.—Form of Water-Passage.—Collars and their Use.—Size of Pipes.— 
Velocity.—Friction.—Discharge of Water through Pipes.—Tables of 
Capacity.—How Water enters Tiles.—Deep Drains run soonest and 
longest.—Pressure of Water on Pipes.—Durability of Tile Drains.— 
Drain-Bricks 100 years old. 

CHAPTER YII. 

DIRECTION, DISTANCE, AND DEPTH OF DRAINS. 

Direction op Drains. —Whence comes the Water ?—Inclination of Strata.— 
Drains across the Slope let Water out as -well as Receive it.—Defence 
against Water from Higher Land.—Open Ditches.—Headers.—Silt-basins. 

Distance op Drains. —Depends on Soil, Depth, Climate, Prices, System.— 
Conclusions as to Distance. 

Depth of Drains. —Greatly Increases Cost.—Shallow Drains first tried in 
England.—10,000 Miles of Shallow Drains laid in Scotland by way of Edu¬ 
cation.—Drains must be below Subsoil plow, and Frost.—Effect of Frost 
on Tiles and Aqueducts. 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


CHAPTER YILI. 

ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 

Necessity of System.—What Fall is Necessary.—American Examples.—Out¬ 
lets.—Wells and Relief-Pipes.—Peep-holes.—How to secure Outlets.—Gate 
to Exclude Back-Water.—Gratings and Screens to keep out Frogs, Snakes, 
Moles, &c.—Mains, Submains, and Minors, how placed.—Capacity of Pipes. 
—Mains of Two Tiles.—Junction of Drains.—Effect of Curves and Angles 
on Currents.—Branch Pipes.—Draining into Wells or Swallow Holes.— 
Letter from Mr. Denton. 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE COST OF TILES-TILE MACHINES. 

Prices far too high ; Albany prices.—Length of Tiles.—Cost in Suffolk Co., 
England.—Waller’s Machine.—Williams’ Machine.—Cost of Tiles compared 
with Bricks.—Mr. Denton’s Estimate of Cost.—Other Estimates.—Two- 
inch Tiles can be Made as Cheaply as Bricks*—Process of Rolling Tiles.— 
Tile Machines.—Descriptions of Daines’.—Pratt & Bro.’s. 

CHAPTER X. 

THE COST OF DRAINAGE. 

Draining no more expensive than Fencing.—Engineering.—Guessing not 
accurate enough.—Slight Fall sufficient.—Instances.—Two Inches to One- 
Thousand Feet.—Cost of Excavation and Filling.—Narrow Tools required. 
—Tables of Cubic contents of Drains.—Cost of Drains on our own Farm.— 
Cost of Tiles.—Weight and Freight of Tiles.—Cost of Outlets.—Cost of 
Collars.—Smaller Tiles used Avith Collars.—Number of Tiles to the Acre, 
with Tables.—Length of Tiles varies.—Number of Rods to the Acre at 
different Distances.—Final Estimate of Cost.—Comparative Cost of Tile- 
Drains and Stone-Drains. 

CHAPTER XI. 

DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 

Unreasonable Expectations about Draining Tools.—Levelling Instruments.— 
Guessing not Accurate.—Level by a Square.—Spirit Level.—Span, or A 
Level.—Grading by Lines.—Boning-rod.—Challoner’s Drain Level.—Spades 
and Shovels.—Long-handled Shovel.—Irish Spade, description and cut.— 
Bottoming Tools.—Narrow Spades.—English Bottoming Tools,—Pipe- 
layer.—Pipe-laying Illustrated.—Pickaxes.—Drain Gauge.—Drain Plows, 
and Ditch-Diggers. — Fowler’s Drain PIoav. — Pratt’s Ditch-Digger. — 
McEwan’s Drain Plow.—Routt’s Drain PIoav. 

1 * 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER XII. 

PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR OPENING DRAINS AND LAYING 

TILES. 

Begin at the Outlet.—Use of Plows.—Leveling the Bottom.—Where to 
begin to lay Pipes.—Mode of Procedure.—Covering Pipes.—Securing 
Joints.—Filling.—Securing Outlets.—Plans. 


CHAPTER XIII. 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE UPON THE CONDITION OF THE SOIL. 

Drainage deepens the Soil, and gives the roots a larger pasture.—Cobbett’s 
Lucerne 30 feet deep.—Mechi’s Parsnips 13 feet long!—Drainage pro¬ 
motes Pulverization—Prevents Surface-Washing—Lengthens the Season 
—Prevents Freezing out—Dispenses with Open Ditches.— Saves 25 per 
cent, of Labor—Promotes absorption of Fertilizing Substances from the 
Air.—Supplies Air to the Roots.—Drains run before Rain; so do some 
Springs.—Drainage warms the Soil.—Corn sprouts at 55° ; Rye on Ice.— 
Cold from Evaporation. —Heat will not pass downward in Water.—Count 
Rumford’s Experiments with Hot Water on Ice.—Aeration of Soil by 
Drains. 

CHAPTER XIY. 

DRAINAGE ADAPTS THE SOIL TO GERMINATION AND 

VEGETATION. 

Process of Germination.—Two Classes of Pores in Soils, illustrated by 
cuts.—Too much Water excludes Air, reduces Temperature.—How much 
Air the Soil Contains. — Drainage Improves the Quality of Crops. — 
Drainage prevents Drought.—Drained Soils hold most Water—Allow 
Roots to go Deep.—Various Facts. 

CHAPTER XY. 

TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 

Drainage Warms the Soil in Spring.—Heat cannot go down in Wet Land._ 

Drainage causes greater Deposit of Dew in Summer.—Dew warms Plants 
in Night, Cools them in the Morning Sun.—Drainage varies Temperature 
by Lessening Evaporation.—What is Evaporation.—How it produces Cold. 
—Drained Land Freezes Deepest, but Thaws Soonest, and the Reasons. 


CONTENTS. 


xi 


CHAPTER XYI. 

POWER OF SOILS TO ABSORB AND RETAIN MOISTURE. 

Why does not Drainage make the Land too Dry ?—Adhesive Attraction.— 
The Finest Soils exert most Attraction.—How much Water different Soils 
hold by Attraction.—Capillary Attraction, illustrated.—Power to Imbibe 
Moisture from the Air.—Weight Absorbed by 1,000 lbs. in 12 Hours.— 
Dew, Cause of.—Dew Point.—Cause of Frost.—Why Covering Plants 
Protects from Frost.—Dew Imparts Warmth.—Idea that the Moon Pro¬ 
motes Putrefaction.—Quantity of Dew. 

CHAPTER XVH. 

INJURY OF LAND BY DRAINAGE. 

Most Land cannot be Over-drained.—Nature a Deep drainer.—Over-draining 
of Peaty Soils.—Lincolnshire Fens Visit to them in 1857.—56 Bushels of 
Wheat to the Acre.—Wet Meadows Subside by Drainage.—Conclusions. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 

Tiles will fill up, unless well dried.—Obstruction by Sand or Silt.—Obstruc¬ 
tions at the Outlet from Frogs, Moles, Action of Frost, and Cattle.—Obstruc¬ 
tion by Roots.—Willow, Ash, &c., trees capricious.—Roots enter Peren¬ 
nial Streams.—Obstruction by Mangold Wurtzel.—Obstruction by Per- 
Oxide of Iron.—How Prevented.—Obstructions by the Joints Filling.— 
No Danger with Two-Inch Pipes.—Water through the Pores.—Collars.— 
How to Detect Obstructions. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

DRAINAGE OF STIFF CLAYS. 

Clay not impervious, or it could not be wet and dried.—Puddling, what is. 
—Water will stand over Drains on Puddled Soil.—Cracking of Clays by 
Drying.—Drained Clays improve by time.—Passage of Water through 
Clay makes it permeable.—Experiment by Mr. Pettibone, of Vermont.— 
Pressure of Water in Saturated Soil. 

CHAPTER XX. 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS AND RIVERS. 

Drainage Hastens the Supply to the Streams, and thus creates Freshets.— 
Effect of Drainage on Meadows below; on Water Privileges.—Conflict 
of Manufacturing and Agricultural Interests.—English Opinions and 
Facts.—Uses of Drainage Water.—Irrigation.—Drainage Water for Stock. 
—How used by Mr. Mechi. 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE XXI. 

LEGISLATION-DRAINAGE COMPANIES. 

England protects her Farmers.—Meadows ruined by Corporation dams.— 
Old Mills often Nuisances.—Factory Reservoirs.—Flowage extends above 
level of Dam.—Rye and Derwent Drainage.—Give Steam for Water-Power. 
—Right to Drain through land of others.—Right to natural flow of Water. 
—Laws of Mass.—Right to Flow ; why not to Drain ?—Land-drainage 
Companies in England.—Lincolnshire Fens.—Government Loans for 
Drainage. 

CHAPTEE XXII. 

DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 

Wet Cellars Unhealthful. — Importance of Cellars in New England.—A 
Glance at the Garret, by way of Contrast.—Necessity of Drains.—Sketch 
of an Inundated Cellar. — Tiles best for Drains. — Best Plan of Cellar 
Drain; Illustration.—Cementing will not do.—Drainage of Barn Cellars.— 
Uses of them.—Actual Drainage of a very Bad Cellar described.—Drains 
Outside and Inside ; Illustration. 

CHAPTEE XXIII. 

DRAINAGE OF SWAMPS. 

Vast Extent of Swamp Lands in the United States.—Their Soil.—Sources of 
their Moisture.—How to Drain them.—The Soil Subsides by Draining.— 
Catch-water Drains.—Springs.—Mr. Ruffin’s Drainage in Virginia.—Is 
there Danger of Over-draining? 

CHAPTEE XXIY. 

AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS IN DRAINAGE-DRAINAGE IN 

IRELAND. 

Statement of B. F. Nourse, of Maine.—Statement of Shedd and Edson, of Mass. 
—Statement of H. F. French, of New Hampshire.—Letter of Wm. Boyle, 
Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland. 


IXDEX. 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER I. 

. * 5 - 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Why this Treatise does not contain all Knowledge.—Attention of Scientific 
Men attracted to Drainage.—Lieutenant Maury’s Suggestions.—Ralph 
Waldo Emerson’s Views.—Opinions of J. H. Klippart, Esq.; of Professor 
Mapes; B. P. Johnston, Esq.; Governor Wright, Mr. Custis, &c.—Preju¬ 
dice against what is English.—Acknowledgements to our Friends at 
Home and Abroad.—The Wants of our Fai'mei’s. 


A Book upon Farm Drainage! What can a person 
find on such a subject to write a book about? A friend 
suggests, that in order to treat any one subject fully, it is 
necessary to know everything and speak of everything, 
because all knowledge is in some measure connected. 

With an earnest endeavor to clip the wings of imagin¬ 
ation, and to keep not only on the earth, but to burrow, 
like a mole or a sub-soiler, in it, with a painful apprehen¬ 
sion lest some technical term in Chemistry or Philosophy 
should falsely indicate that we make pretensions to the 
character of a scientific farmer, or some old phrase of 
law-Latin should betray that we know something besides 
agriculture, and so, are not worthy of the confidence of 
practical men, we have, nevertheless, by some means, 
got together more than a bookfull of matter upon our 
subject. 


13 



14 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Our publisher says our book must be so large, and no 
larger—and we all know that an author is but as a grass¬ 
hopper in the hands of his publisher, and ought to be 
very thankful to be allowed to publish his book at all. 
So we have only to say, that if there is any chapter in 
this book not sufficiently elaborate, or any subject akin to 
that of drainage, that ought to have been embraced in 
our plan and is not, it is because we have not space for 
further expansion. The reader has our heartfelt sympathy, 
if it should happen that the very topic which most in¬ 
terests him, is entirely omitted, or imperfectly treated; 
and we can only advise him to write a book himself, by 
way of showing proper resentment, and put into it every¬ 
thing that everybody desires most to know. 

A book that shall contain all that we do not know on 
the subject of drainage, would be a valuable acquisition 
to agricultural literature, and we bespeak an early copy 
of it when published. 

Irrigation is a subject closely connected with drainage, 
and, although it would require a volume of equal size with 
this to lay it properly before the American public, who 
know so little of water-meadows and liquid-manuring, and 
even of the artificial application of water to land in any 
way, we feel called upon for an apology for its omission. 

Lieutenant Maury, whose name does honor to his nation 
over all the civilized world, and on whom the blessings 
of every navigator upon the great waters, are constantly 
showered, in a letter which we had the honor recently to 
receive from him, thus speaks of this subject: 

“ I was writing to a friend some months ago upon the 
subject of drainage in this country, and I am pleased to infer 
from your letter, that our opinions are somewhat similar. 
The climate of England is much more moist than this, 
though the amount of rain in many parts of this country, 
is much greater than the amount of rain there. It drizzles 


INTRODUCTORY. 


15 


there more than it does here. Owing* to the high dew 
point in England, but a small portion only—that is, com¬ 
paratively small—of the rain that falls can he evaporated 
again ; consequently, it remains in the soil until it is 
drained off. Here, on the other hand, the clouds pour it 
down, and the sun sucks it up right away, so that the 
perfection of drainage for this country w T ould be the very 
reverse, almost, of the drainage in England. If, instead 
of leading the water off into the water-veins and streams 
of the country, as is there done, we could collect it in 
pools on the farm, so as to be used in time of drought for 
irrigation, then your system of drainage would be worth 
untold wealth. Of course, in low grounds, and all places 
where the atmosphere does not afford sufficient drainage 
by evaporation, the English plan will do very well, and 
much good may be done by a treatise which shall enable 
owners to reclaim or improve such places.” 

Indeed, the importance of this subject of drainage, 
seems all at once to have found universal acknowledge¬ 
ment throughout our country, not only from agriculturists, 
but from philosophers and men of general science. 

Emerson, whose eagle glance, piercing beyond the sight 
of other men, recognizes in so-called accidental heroes the 
“ Representative men” of the ages, and in what to others 
seem but caprices and conventionalisms, the “ Traits” of 
a nation, yet never overlooks the practical and every-day 
wants of man, in a recent address at Concord, Mass., the 
place of his residence, thus characteristically alludes to 
our subject: 

“ Concord is one of the oldest towns in the country— 
far on now in its third century. The Select-men have 
once in five years perambulated its bounds, and yet, in 
this year, a very large quantity of land has been dis¬ 
covered and added to the agricultural land, and without 
a murmur of complaint from any neighbor. By drainage, 


16 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


we have gone to the subsoil, and we have a Concord under 
Concord, a Middlesex under Middlesex, and a basement- 
story of Massachusetts more valuable than all the super¬ 
structure. Tiles are political economists. They are so 
many Young-Americans announcing a better era, and a 
day of fat things.” 

John H. Klippart, Esq., the learned Secretary of the 
Ohio Board of Agriculture, expresses his opinion upon 
the importance of our subject in his own State, in this 
emphatic language : 

“ The agriculture of Ohio can make no farther marked 
progress until a good system of under-drainage has been 
adopted.” 

A writer in the Country Gentleman , from Ashtabula 
County, Ohio, says:—“ One of two things must be done 
by us here. Clay predominates in our soil, and we must 
under-drain our land, or sell and move west.” 

Professor Mapes, of New York, under date of January 
IT, 1859, says of under-draining: 

“ I do not believe that farming can be pursued with 
full profit without it. It would seem to be no longer a 
question. The experience of England, in the absence of 
all other proof, would be sufficient to show that capital 
may be invested more safely in under-draining, than in 
any other way ; for, after the expenditure of many millions 
by English farmers in this way, it has been clearly proved 
that their increased profit, arising from this cause alone, 
is sufficient to pay the total expense in full, with interest, 
within twenty years, thus leaving their farms increased 
permanently to the amount of the total cost, while the 
income is augmented in a still greater ratio. It is quite 
doubtful whether England could at this time sustain her 
increased population, if it were not for her system of 
thorough-drainage. In my own practice, the result has 
been such as to convince me of its advantages, and I 


INTRODUCTORY. 


17 


should be unwilling to enter into any new cultivation 
without thorough drainage.” 

B. P. Johnson, Secretary of the Hew York Board of 
Agriculture, in answer to some inquiries upon the subject 
of drainage with tiles, writes us, under date of December, 
1858, as follows: 

“I have given much time and attention to the subject 
of drainage, having deemed it all-important to the im¬ 
provement of the farms of our State. I am well satisfied, 
from a careful examination in England, as w T ell as from 
my observation in this country, that tiles are far pre¬ 
ferable to any other material that I know of for drains, 
and this is the opinion of all those wdio have engaged 
extensively in the work in this State, so far as I have 
information. It is gratifying to be assured, that during 
the year past, there has been probably more land-draining 
than during any previous year, showing the deep interest 
which is taken in this all-important work, so indispensable 
to the success of the farmer.” 

It is ascertained, by inquiry at the Land Office, that 
more than 52,000,000 acres of swamp and overflowed 
lands have been selected under the Acts of March 2d, 
1849, and September 28th, 1850, from the dates of those 
grants to September, 1856 ; and it is estimated that, when 
the grants shall have been entirely adjusted, they will 
amount to 60,000,000 acres. 

Grants of these lands have been made by Congress, 
from the public domain, gratuitously, to the States in 
which they lie, upon the idea that they were not only 
worthless to the Government, but dangerous to the health 
of the neighboring inhabitants, with the hope that the 
State governments might take measures to reclaim them 
for cultivation, or, at least, render them harmless, by the 
removal of their surplus water. 

Governor Wright, of Indiana, in a public address, 


18 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


estimated tlie marshy lands of that State at 3,000,000 
acres. “ These lands,” he says, “were generally avoided 
by early settlers, as being comparatively worthless ; but, 
when drained, they become eminently fertile.” ITe further 
says: “ I know a farm of 160 acres, which was sold live 
years ago for $500, that by an expenditure of less than 
$200, in draining and ditching, has been so improved, 
that the owner has refused for it an offer of $3,000.” 

At the meeting of the United States Agricultural 
Society, at Washington, in January, 1857, Mr. G. W. P. 
Custis spoke in connection with the great importance of 
tlii^subject, of the vast quantity of soil—the richest con¬ 
ceivable—now lying w T aste, to the extent of 100,000 acres, 
along the banks of the Lower Potomac, and which he 
denominates by the old Virginia title of pocoson. The 
fertility of this reclaimable swamp he reports to be 
astonishing; and he has corroborated the opinion by 
experiments which confounded every beholder. “ These 
lands on our time-honored river,” he says, “ if brought 
into use, would supply provisions at half the present cost, 
and would in other respects prove of the greatest ad¬ 
vantage.” 

The drainage of highways and walks, was noted as a 
topic kindred to our subject, although belonging more 
properly perhaps, to the drainage of towns and to land¬ 
scape-gardening, than to farm drainage. This, too, w r as 
found to be beyond the scope of our proposed treatise, 
and has been left to some abler hand. 

So, too, the whole subject of reclaiming lands from the 
sea, and from rivers, by embankment, and the drainage 
of lakes and ponds, which at a future day must attract 
great attention in this country, has proved quite too exten¬ 
sive to be treated here. The day will soon come, when 
on our Atlantic coast, the ocean w T aves will be stayed, 
and all along our great rivers, the Spring floods, and the 


INTRODUCTORY. 


19 


Summer freshets, will be held within artificial barriers, 
and the enclosed lands be kept dry by engines propelled 
by steam, or some more efficient or economical agent. 

The half million acres of fen-land in Lincolnshire, pro¬ 
ducing the heaviest wheat crops in England ; and Harlaem 
Lake, in ILolland, with its 40,000 acres of fertile land, far 
below the tides, and once covered with many feet of 
water, are examples of what science and well-directed 
labor may accomplish. But this department of drainage 
demands the skill of scientific engineers, and the employ¬ 
ment of combined capital and effort, beyond the means of 
American farmers; and had we ability to treat it pro¬ 
perly, would afford matter rather of pleasing speculation, 
than of practical utility to agricultural readers. 

With a reckless expenditure of paper and ink, we had 
already prepared chapters upon several topics, which, 
though not essential to farm-drainage, were as near to our 
subject as the minister usually is limited in preaching, or 
the lawyer in argument; but conformity to the Procrus¬ 
tean bed, in whose sheets we had in advance stipulated 
to sleep, cost us the amputation of a few of our least im¬ 
portant heads. 

“ Don’t be too English,” suggests a very wise and politic 
friend. We are fully aware of the prejudice which still 
exists in many minds in our country, against what is 
peculiarly English. Because, forsooth, our good Mother 
England, towards a century ago, like most fond mothers, 
thought her transatlantic daughter quite too young and 
inexperienced to set up an establishment and manage it 
for herself, and drove her into wasteful experiments of 
wholesale tea-making in Boston harbor, by way of illus¬ 
trating her capacity of entertaining company from beyond 
seas; and because, near half a century ago, we had some 
sharp words, spoken not through the mouths of prophets 
and sages, but through the mouths of great guns, touching 


20 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the right of our venerated parent to examine the internal 
economy of our merchant-ships on the sea—because of 
reminiscences like these, we are to forswear all that is 
English ! And so we may claim no kindred in literature 
with Shakspeare and Milton, in jurisprudence, with Bacon 
and Manslield, in statesmanship, with Pitt and Fox ! 

Whence came the spirit of independence, the fearless 
love of liberty of which we boast, but from our English 
blood ? Whence came our love of territorial extension, 
our national ambition, exhibited under the affectionate 
name of annexation? Does not this velvet paw with 
which we softly play with our neighbors’ heads, conceal 
some long, crooked talons, which tell of the ancestral 
blood of the British Lion ? 

The legislature of a Hew England State, not many 
years ago, appointed a committee to revise its statutes. 
This committee had a pious horror of all dead languages, 
and a patriotic fear of paying too high a compliment to 
England, and so reported that all proceedings in courts of 
law should be in the American language! An inquiry 
by a waggish member, whether the committee intended 
to allow proceedings to be in any one of the three hundred 
Indian dialects, restored to the English language its 
appropriate name. 

Though from some of our national traits, we might 
possibly be supposed to have sprung from the sowing of 
the dragon’s teeth by Cadmus, yet the uniform record of 
all American families which goes back to the “ three 
brothers who came over from England,” contradicts this 
theory, and connects us by blood and lineage with that 
country. 

Indeed, we can hardly consent to sell our birthright for 
so poor a mess of pottage as this petty jealousy offers. 
A teachable spirit in matters of which we are ignorant, 
is usually as profitable and respectable as abundant self- 


INTRODUCTORY. 


21 


conceit, and rendering to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, 
quite as honest as to pocket'the coin as our own, notwith¬ 
standing the “ image and superscription.” 

We make frequent reference to English writers and 
to English opinions upon our subject, because drainage is 
understood and practiced better in England than any¬ 
where else in the world, and because by personal inspec¬ 
tion of drainage-works there, and personal acquaintance 
and correspondence with some of the most successful 
drainers in that country, we feel some confidence of ability 
to apply English principles to American soil and climate. 

To J. Bailey Denton, Engineer of the General Land 
Drainage Company, and one of the most distinguished 
practical and scientific drainers in England, we wish 
publicly to acknowledge our obligations for personal 
favors shown us in the preparation of our work. 

We claim no great praise of originality in what is here 
offered to the public. Wherever we have found a person 
of whom we could learn anything, in this or other coun¬ 
tries, we have endeavored to profit by his teachings, and 
whenever the language of another, in book or journal, has 
been found to express forcibly an idea which we deemed 
worthy of adoption, we have given full credit for both 
thought and words. 

Our friends, Messrs. Shedd and Edson, of Boston, whose 
experience as draining engineers entitles them to a high 
rank among: American authorities, have been in constant 
communication with us, throughout our labors. The 
chapter upon Evaporation, Bain fall, &c., which we deem 
of great value as a contribution to science in general, will 
be seen to be in part credited to them, as are also the 
tables showing the discharge of water through pijDes of 
various capacity. 

Drainage is a new subject in America, not well under- 


22 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


stood, and we have no man, it is believed, peculiarly fitted 
to teach its theory and practice; yet the farmers every¬ 
where are awake to its importance, and are eagerly 
seeking for information on the subject. Many are already 
engaged in the endeavor to drain their lands, conscious of 
their want of the requisite knowledge to effect their object 
in a profitable manner, while others are going resolutely 
forward, in violation of all correct principles, wasting 
their labor, unconscious even of their ignorance. 

In Hew England, we have determined to dry the springy 
hill sides, and so lengthen our seasons for labor ; we have 
found, too, in the valleys and swamps, the soil which has 
been washed from our mountains, and intend to avail our¬ 
selves of its fertility in the best manner practicable. On 
the prairies of the great West, large tracts are found just 
a little too wet for the best crops of corn and wheat, and 
the inquiry is anxiously made, how can we be rid of this 
surplus water. 

There is no treatise, English or American, which meets 
the wants of our people. In England, it is true, land 
drainage is already reduced to a science ; but their system 
has grown up by degrees, the first principles being now 
too familiar to be at all discussed, and the points now in 
controversy there, quite beyond the comprehension of be¬ 
ginners. America wants a treatise which shall be ele¬ 
mentary, as well as thorough—that shall teach the 
alphabet, as well as the transcendentalism, of draining 
land—that shall tell the man who never saw a drain-tile 
what thorough drainage is, and shall also suggest to those 
who have studied the subject in English books only, the 
differences in climate and soil, in the prices of labor and 
of products, which must modify our operations. 

With some practical experience on his own land, with 
careful observation in Europe and in America of the 
details oi drainage operations, with a somewhat critical 


KSTTRODU CTOJJ Y. 


23 


examination of published books and papers on all topics 
connected with the general subject, the author has endea¬ 
vored to turn the leisure hours of a laborious professional 
life to some account for the farmer. Although, as the 
lawyers say, the “presumptions” are, perhaps, strongly 
against the idea, yet a professional man may understand 
practical farming. The profession of the law has made 
some valuable contributions to agricultural literature. 
Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, author of the “Poke of Husban- 
drie,” published in 1523, was Chief Justice of the Com¬ 
mon Pleas, and, as he says, an “ experyenced farmer of 
more than 40 years.” The author of that charming little 
book, “ Talpa,” it is said, is also a lawyer, and there is such 
wisdom in the idea, so well expressed by Emerson as a 
fact, that we commend it by way of consolation to men 
of all the learned professions : “ All of us keep the farm in 
reserve, as an asylum where to hide our poverty and our 
solitude, if we do not succeed in society.” 

Besides the prejudice against what is foreign, we meet 
everywhere the prejudice against what is new, though far 
less in this country than in England. “ ]STo longer ago 
than 1835,” says the Quarterly Review , “Sir Bobert Peel 
presented a Farmers’ Club, at Tam worth, with two iron 
plows of the best construction. On his next visit, the old 
plows, with the wooden mould-boards, were again at 
work. ‘ Sir,’ said a member of the club, 6 we tried the 
iron, and we be all of one mind, that they make the weeds 
grow !’ ” 

American farmers have no such ignorant prejudice as 
tins. They err rather by having too much faith in them¬ 
selves, than by having too little in the idea of progress, 
and will be more likely to “go ahead ” in the wrong direc¬ 
tion, than to remain quiet in their old position. 


24 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER II. 

HISTORY OF THE ART OF DRAINING. 

Draining as Old as tlie Deluge.—Roman Authors.—Walter Bligh in 1650.— 
No thorough drainage till Smith of Deanston.—No mention of tiles in the 
“ Compleat Body of Husbandry,” 1758.—Tiles found 100 years old.— 
Elkington’s System.—Johnstone’s Puns and Peripatetics. — Draining 
Springs.—Bletonism, or the Faculty of Perceiving Subterranean Water.— 
Deanston System.—Views of Mr. Parkes.—Keythorpe System.—Wharn- 
cliffe System.—Introduction of tiles into America.—John Johnston, and 
Mr. Delafield, of New York. 

The art of removing superfluous water from land, must 
be as ancient as the art of cultivation; and from the time 
when Noah and his family anxiously watched the sub¬ 
siding of the waters into their appropriate channels, to 
the present, men must have felt the ill effects of too much 
water, and adopted means more or less effective, to re¬ 
move it. 

The Roman writers upon agriculture, Cato, Columella, 
and Pliny, all mention draining, and some of them give 
minute directions for forming drains with stones, branches 
of trees, and straw. Palladius, in his De Aquae Ductibus , 
mentions earthen-ware tubes, used however for aque¬ 
ducts, rather for conveying water from place to place, 
than for draining lands for agriculture. 

Nothing, however, like the systematic drainage of the 
present day, seems to have been conceived of in England, 
until about 1650, when Captain Walter Bligh published 
a work, which is interesting, as embodying and boldly 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


25 


advocating* the theory of deep-drainage as applied by 
him to water-meadows and swamps, and as applicable to 
the drainage of all other moist lands. 

We give from the 7th volume of the Journal of the 
Royal Agricultural Society, in the language of that 
eminent advocate of deep-drainage, Josiali Parkes, an 
account of this rare book, and of the principles which it 
advocates, as a fitting introduction to the more modern 
and more perfect system of thorough drainage : 

u The author of this work was a Captain Walter Bligh, signing 
himself, 1 A Lover of Ingenuity.’ It is quaintly entitled, k The English 
Improver Improved; or, the Survey of Husbandry Surveyed ; 5 with 
several prefaces, but specially addressed to 1 The Right Honorable the 
Lord General Cromwell, and the Right Honorable the Lord President, 
and the rest of the Honorable Society of the Council of State . 5 In his 
instructions for forming the flooding and draining trenches of water- 
meadows, the author says of the latter:—‘ And for thy drayning- 
trench, it must be made so deep, that it goe to the bottom of the cold 
spewing moyst water, that feeds the flagg and the rush; for the wide- 
nesse of it, use thine own liberty, but be sure to make it so wide as 
thou mayest goe to the bottom of it, which must be so low as any 
moysture lyeth, which moysture usually lyeth under the over and 
second swarth of the earth, in some gravel or sand, or else, where 
some greater stones are mixt with clay, under which thou must goe 
half one spade’s graft deep at least. Yea, suppose this corruption that 
feeds and nourish eth the rush or flagg, should lie a yard or four-foot 
deepe; to the bottom of it thou must goe, if ever thou wilt drayn it to 
purpose, or make the utmost advantage of either floating or drayning, 
without which the water cannot have its kindly operation; for though 
the water fatten naturally, yet still this coldnesse and moysture lies 
gnawing within, and not being taken clean away, it eates out what the 
water fattens ; and so the goodnesse of the water is, as it were, riddled, 
screened, and strained out into the land, leaving the richnesse and the 
leanesse sliding away from it . 5 In another place, he replies to the 
objectors of floating, that it will breed the rush, the flagg, and’ mare- 
blab; ‘only make thy drayning-trenches deep enough, and not too far 
oflTthy floating course, and I’le warrant it they drayn away that under- 
moyslure, fylth. and venom as aforesaid, that maintains them; and 
then believe me, or deny Scripture, which I hope thou doust not, as 
2 


26 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Bildad said unto Job, “ Can the rush grow without mire, or the flagg 
without water ?” Job viii. 12. That interrogation plainly showes that 
the rush cannot grow, the water being taken from the root; for it is 
not the moystnesse upon the surface of the land, for then every shower 
should increase the rush, but it is that which lietli at the root, which, 
drayned away at the bottom, leaves it naked and barren of relief.’ 

“ The author frequently returns to this charge, explaining over and 
over again the necessity of removing what we call bottom-water, and 
which he well designates as ‘filth and venom.’ 

“In the course of my operations as a drainer, I have met with, or 
heard of, so many instances of swamp-drainage, executed precisely 
according to the plans of this author, and sometimes in a superior 
manner—the conduits being formed of walling stone, at a period 
long antecedent to the memory of the living—that I am disposed to 
consider the practice of deep drainage to have originated with Captain 
Bligh, and to have been preserved by imitators in various parts of the 
country; since a book, which passed through three editions in the time 
of the Commonwealth, must necessarily have had an extensive circu¬ 
lation, and enjoyed a high renown. Several complimentary autograph 
verses, written by some imitators and admirers of the ingenious Bligh, 
are bound up with the volume. I find also, not unfrequently, very 
ancient deep drains in arable fields, and some of them still in good con¬ 
dition ; and in a case or two, I have met with several ancient drains 
six feet deep, placed parallel with each other, but at so great a distance 
asunder, as not to have commanded a perfect drainage of the inter¬ 
mediate space. The author from whom I have so largely quoted, is 
the earliest known to me, who has had the sagacity to distinguish 
between the transient effect of rain, and the constant action of stag¬ 
nant bottom-water in maintaining land in a wet condition.” 

Dr. Shier, editor of “ Davy’s Agricultural Chemistry,” 
says, “ The history of drainage in Britain may he briefly 
told. Till the time of Smith, of Deanston, draining was 
generally regarded as the means of freeing the land from 
springs, oozes, and under-water, and it was applied only 
to lands palpably wet, and producing rushes and other 
aquatic plants.” 

He then proceeds to give the principles of Elkington, 
Smith, Parkes, and other modern writers, of which we 
shall speak more at large. 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


27 


The work published in England, not far from Captain 
Bligh’s time, under the title “ A Complete Body of Hus¬ 
bandry,” undertakes to give directions for all sorts of farm¬ 
ing processes. A Second Edition, in four octavo volumes, 
of which we have a copy, was published in 1758. It pro¬ 
fesses to treat of “ Draining in General,” and then of the 
draining of boggy land and of fens, but gives no intima¬ 
tion that any other lands require drainage. 

Directions are given for filling drains with “ rough 
stones,” to be covered with refuse wood, and over that, 
some of the earth that was thrown out in digging. “ By 
this means,” says the writer, “ a passage will be left free 
for all the water the springs yield, and there will be none 
of these great openings upon the surface.” 

He thus describes a method practiced in Oxfordshire of 
draining with bushes : 

“ Let the trenches be cut deeper than otherwise, suppose three foot 
deep, and two foot over. As soon as they are made, let the bottoms of 
them be covered with fresh-cut blackthorn bushes. Upon these, throw 
in a quantity of large refuse stones; over these let there be another 
covering of straw, and upon this, some of the earth, so as to make the 
surface level with the rest. These trenches will always keep open. 5 ’ 

Ho mention whatever is made in this elaborate treatise 
of tiles of any kind*, which affords very strong evidence 
that they were not in use for drainage at that time. In a 
note, however, to Stephen’s “ Draining and Irrigation,” we 
find the following statement and opinion : 

u In draining the park at Grimsthorpe, Lincolnshire, about three 
years ago, some drains, made with tiles, were found eight feet below 
the surface of the ground. The tiles were similar to what are now used, 
and in as good a state of preservation as when first laid, although they 
must have remained there above one hundred years. 

elkington’s SYSTEM OF DRAINAGE. 

It appears, that, in 1795, the British Parliament, at the 
request of the Board of Agriculture, voted to Joseph 


28 FARM DRAINAGE. 

* 

Elkington a reward of £1000, for kis valuable discoveries 
in tlie drainage of land. Joseph Elkington w^as a War¬ 
wickshire farmer, and Mr. Gisborne says he was a man of 
considerable genius, but he had the misfortune to be illit¬ 
erate. His discovery had created such a sensation in the 
agricultural world, that it was thought important to record 
its details; and, as Elkington’s health was extremely pre¬ 
carious, the Poard resolved to send Mr. John Johnstone 
to visit, in company with him, his principal works of 
drainage, and to transmit to posterity the benefits of his 
knowledge. 

Accordingly, Mr. John Johnstone, having carefully 
studied Elkington’s system, under its author, in the peri¬ 
patetic method, undertook, like Plato, to record the say¬ 
ings of his master in science, and produced a work, enti¬ 
tled, “ An Account of the Most Approved Mode of Drain¬ 
ing Land, According to the System Practised by Mr. 
Joseph Elkington.” It was published at Edinburgh, in 
1797. Mr. Gisborne says, that Elkington found in John¬ 
stone “ a very inefficient exponent of his opinions, and of 
the principles on which he conducted his works.” 

“ Every one/’ says he, u who reads the work, which is popularly 
called 1 Elkington on Draining,’ should be aware, that it is not Joseph 
who thinks and speaks therein, but John, who tells his readers what, 
according to his ideas, Joseph would have thought and spoken.” 

Again— 

c: Johnstone, measured by general capacity, is a very shallow 
drainer ! He delights in exceptional cases, of which he may have met 
with some, but of which, we suspect the great majority to be products 
of his own ingenuity, and to be put forward, with a view to display the 
ability with which he could encounter them.” 

Johnstone’s report seems to have undergone several re¬ 
visions, and to have been enlarged and reproduced in 
other forms than the original, for we find, that, in 1838, it 
was published in the United States, at Petersburg, Yir- 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


29 


ginia, as a supplement to the Farmer's Register , by 
Edmund Ruffin, Esq., editor, a reprint “from the third 
British Edition, revised and enlarged,” under the follow¬ 
ing title : 

u A Systematic Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Draining 
Land, &c., according to the most approved methods, and adapted to the 
various situations and soils of England and Scotland; also on sea, river, 
and lake embankments, formation of ponds and artificial pieces of 
water, with an appendix, containing hints and directions for the culture 
. and improvement of bog, morass, moor, and other unproductive ground, 
after being drained ) the whole illustrated by plans and sections appli¬ 
cable to the various situations and forms of construction. Inscribed to 
the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, by John Johnstone, 
Land Surveyor.” 

Me. Ruffin certainly deserves great credit for his enter¬ 
prise in republishing in America, at so early a day, a work 
of which an English copy could not be purchased for less 
than six dollars, as well as for his zealous labors ever since 
in the cause of agriculture. 

There is, in this work of Johnstone, a quaintness which 
ho, probably, did not learn from Elkington, and which 
ill ustrates the character of his mind as one not peculiarly 

adapted to a plain and practical history of another man’s 
system and labors. Eor instance, in speaking of the 

arrangement of his subject into parts, he says, in a note, 
“ The subject being closely connected with cutting , section 
is held as a better division than chapter !” 

Again, he speaks of embanking, and says he has some 
experience on that head. Then he adds the following 
note, lest a possible pun should be lost : “ An embank¬ 
ment is often termed a c head,’ as it makes head, or resist¬ 
ance, against the encroachment of high tide or river 
floods.” 

There is some danger that a mind which scents a whim¬ 
sical analogy of meaning like this, may entirely lose the 
main track of pursuit ; but Johnstone’s special mission 


30 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


was to ascertain Elkington’s method, and his account of it 
is, therefore, the best authority we have on the subject. 

ETe gives the following statement of Elkington’s discov¬ 
ery : 

u In the year 1763, Elkington was left by his father in the possession 
of a farm called Prince-Tliorp, in the parish of Stretton-upon-Dunsmore, 
and county of Warwick. The soil of this farm was so poor, and, in 
many places, so extremely wet, that it was the cause of rotting several 
hundreds of his sheep, which first induced him, if possible, to drain it. 
This he begun to do, in 1764, in a field of wet clay soil, rendered * 
almost a swamp, or shaking bog, by the springs which issued from an 
adjoining bank of gravel and sand, and overflowed the surface of the 
ground below. To drain this field, which was of considerable extent, 
he cut a trench about four or five feet deep, a little below the upper 
side of the bog, where the wetness began to make its appearance^; and, 
after proceeding with it in this direction and at this depth, he found it did 
not reach the principal body of subjacent water from which the evil arose. 
On perceiving this, he was at a loss how to proceed, when one of his ser¬ 
vants came to the field with an iron crow , or bar, for the purpose of 
making holes for fixing sheep hurdles in an adjoining part of the farm, 
as represented on the plan. Having a suspicion that his drain was not 
deep enough, and desirous to know what strata lay under it, he took 
the iron bar, and having forced it down about four feet below the bottom 
of the trench, on pulling it out, to his astonishment, a great quantity 
of water burst up through the hole he had thus made, and ran along 
the drain. This led him to the knowledge, that wetness may be often 
produced by water confined farther below the surface of the ground than 
it was possible for the usual depth of drains to reach, and that an auger 
would be a useful instrument to apply in such cases. Thus, chance was 
the parent of this discovery, as she often is of other useful arts; and 
fortunate it is for society, when such accidents happen to those who 
have sense and judgment to avail themselves of hints thus fortuitously 
given. In this manner he soon accomplished the drainage of his whole 
farm, and rendered it so perfectly dry and sound, that none of his flock 
was ever after affected with disease. 

u By the success of this experiment, Mr. Elkington’s fame, as a 
drainer, was quickly and widely extended; and, after having success¬ 
fully drained several farms in his neighborhood, he was, at last, very 
generally employed for that purpose in various parts of the kingdom, 
till about thirty years ago, when the country had the melancholy cause 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


31 


to regret his loss. From his long practice and experience, he became 
so successful in the works he undertook, and so skillful in judging of the 
internal strata of the earth and the nature of springs, that, with remark¬ 
able precision, he could ascertain where to find water, and trace the 
course of springs that made no appearance on the surface of the ground. 
During his practice of more than thirty years, he drained in various 
parts of England, particularly in the midland counties, many thousand 
acres of land, which, from being originally of little or no value, soon 
became as useful as any in the kingdom, by producing the most valu¬ 
able kinds of grain and feeding the best and healthiest species of stock. 

Many have erroneously entertained an idea that Elkington’s skill 
lay solely in applying the auger for the tapping of springs , without attach¬ 
ing any merit to his method of conducting the drains. The accidental cir¬ 
cumstance above stated gave him the first notion of using an auger, and 
directed his attention to the profession and practice of draining, in the 
course of which he made various useful discoveries, as will be after¬ 
wards explained. With regard to the use of the auger, though there is 
every reason to believe that he was led to employ that instrument from 
the circumstance already stated, and did not derive it from any other 
source of intelligence, yet there is no doubt that others might have hit 
upon the same idea without being indebted for it to him. It has hap¬ 
pened, that, in attempts to discover mines by boring, springs have been 
tapped, and ground thereby drained, either by letting the water down, 
or by giving it vent to the surface; and that the auger has been like¬ 
wise used in bringing up water in wells, to save the expense of deeper 
digging; but that it had been used in draining land , before Mr. Ellcing- 
ton made that discovery , no one has ventured to assert .” 

Begging pardon of the shade of John Johnstone for the 
liberty, we will copy from Mr. Gisborne, as being more 
clearly expressed, a summary explanation of Elkington’s 
system, as Mr. Gisborne has deduced it from Johnstone’s 
report, with two simple and excellent plans: 

t 

11 A slight modification of Johnstone’s best and simplest plan, with a 
few sentences of explanation, will sufficiently elucidate Elkington’s 
mystery, and will comprehend the case of all simple superficial springs. 
Perhaps in Agricultural Britain, no formation is more common than 
moderate elevations of pervious material, such as chalk, gravel, and 
imperfect stone or rock of various kinds, resting upon more horizontal 


32 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


beds of clay, or other material less pervious than themselves, and at 
their inferior edge overlapped by it. For this overlap geological reasons 
are given, into which we cannot now enter. In order to make our 
explanation simple, we use the words, gravel and clay, as generic for 
pervious and impervious material. 



{£ Our drawing is an attempt to combine plan and section, which will 
probably be sufficiently illustrative. From A to T is the overlap, 
which is, in fact, a dam holding up the water in the gravel. In this 
dam there is a weak place at S, through which water issues per¬ 
manently (a superficial spring), and runs over the surface from S to 0. 
This issue has a tendency to lower the water in the gravel to the line 
M ra. But when continued rains overpower this issue, the water in 
the gravel rises to the line A a, and meeting with no impediment at 
the point A, it flows over the surface between A and S. In addition 
to these more decided outlets, the water is probably constantly squeezing, 
in a slow way, through the whole dam. Elkington undertakes to drain 
the surface from A to O. He cuts a drain from 0 to B, and then he 
puts down a bore-hole, an Artesian well, from B to Z. His hole enters 
the tail of the gravel; the water contained therein rises up it: and 
the tendency of this new outlet is to lower the water to the line B b. 
If so lowered that it can no longer overflow at A or at S, and the 
surface from A to 0 is drained, so far as the springs are concerned, 
though our section can only represent one spring, and one summit- 
overflow, it is manifest that, however long the horizontal line of junc¬ 
tion between the gravel and clay may be, however numerous the weak 
places (springs) in the overlap, or dam, and the summit-overflows, 
they will all be stopped, provided they lie at a higher level than the 
line B b. If Elkington had driven his drain forward from B to n, he 
would, at least, equally have attained his object; but the bore-hole was 












HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


33 

less expensive. He escapes the deepest and most costly portion of his 
drain. At x : he might have bored to the centre of the earth without 
ever realizing the water in this gravel. His whole success, therefore, 
depended upon his sagacity in hitting the point Z. Another simple 
and very common case, first successfully treated by Elkington, is 
illustrated by our second drawing. 



Fig. 2. 

11 Between gravel hills lies a dish-shaped bed of clay, the gravel 
being continuous under the dish. Springs overflow at A and B, and 
wet the surface from A to 0, and from B to 0. 0 D is a drain four or 

five feet deep, and having an adequate outlet ; D Z a bore-hole. The 
water in the gravel rises from Z to D, and is lowered to the level D m 
and D n. Of course it ceases to flow over at A and B. If Elkington’s 
heart had failed him when he reached X, he would have done no good. 
All his success depends on his reaching Z, however deep it may lie. 
Elkington was a discoverer. We do not at all believe that his dis¬ 
coveries hinged on the accident that the shepherd walked across the 
field with a crow-bar in his hand. When he forced down that crow¬ 
bar, he had more in his head than was ever dreamed of in Johnstone's 
philosophy. Such accidents do not happen to ordinary men. Elking- 
ton’s subsequent use of his discovery, in which no one has yet excelled 
him, warrants our supposition that the discovery was not accidental. 
He was not one of those prophets who are without honor in their own 
country : he created an immense sensation, and received a parliamentary 
grant of one thousand pounds. One writer compares his auger to 
Moses’ rod, and Arthur Young speculates, whether though worthy to 
2 * 






34 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


be rewarded by millers on one side of the hill for increasing their 
stream, he was not liable to an action by those on the other tor 
diminishing theirs.” 

Johnstone sums up this system as follows : 

Ci Draining according to Elkington’s principles depends chiefly upon 
three things: 

u 1. Upon discovering the main spring, or source of the evil. 

u 2. Upon taking the subterraneous beariligs : and, 

u 3dly. By making use of the auger to reach and tap the springs, 
when the depth of the drain is not sufficient for that purpose. 

li The first thing, therefore, to be observed is, by examining the 
adjoining high grounds, to discover what strata they are composed of; 
and then to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the inclination of these 
strata, and their connection with the ground to be drained, and thereby 
to judge at what place the level of the spring comes nearest to where 
the water can be cut off, and most readily discharged. The surest way 
of ascertaining the lay, or inclination, of the different strata, is, by 
examining the bed of the nearest streams, and the edges of the banks 
that are cut through by the water; and any pits, wells, or quarries 
that may be in the neighborhood. After the main spring has been 
thus discovered, the next thing is, to ascertain a line on the same level, 
to one or both sides of it, in which the drain may be conducted, which 
is one of the most important parts of the operation, and one on which 
the art of draining in a scientific manner essentially depends. 

“ Lastly, the use of the auger, which, in many cases, is the sine qua 
non of the business, is to reach and tap the spring when the depth of 
the drain docs not reach it; where the level of the outlet will not 
admit ot its being - cut to a greater depth ] and where the expense of 
such cutting would be great, and the execution of it difficult. 

According to these principles, this system of draining has been 
attended with extraordinary consequences, not only in laying the land 
dry in the vicinity of the drain, but also springs, wells, and wet ground, 
at a considerable distance, with which there was no apparent con¬ 
nection.” 

DRAINAGE OF SPRINGS. 

Wherever, from any cause, water bursts out from a 
hill s side, oi fiom below, in a well defined spring, in any 
considerable quantity, the Elkington method of cutting a 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


35 


deep drain directly into the seat of the evil, and so lower¬ 
ing the water that it may he carried away below the sur¬ 
face, is obviously the true and common-sense remedy. 
There may be cases where, in addition to the drain, it may 
be expedient to bore with an auger in the course of the 
drain. This, however, would be useful only where, from 
the peculiar formation, water is pent up upon a retentive 
subsoil in the manner already indicated. Elkington’s 
method of draining by boring is illustrated in the follow¬ 


ing cut. 

In studying the history of 
Elkington’s discovery, and es¬ 
pecially of his own application 
of it, it wrnuld seem that he must 
have possessed some peculiar 
faculty of ascertaining the sub¬ 
terranean currents of water, not 
possessed or even claimed by 
modern engineers. 

Indeed, Mr. Denton, who may 
rightly claim as much skill as a 
draining engineer, perhaps, as 
any man in England, expressly 
says, “ It does not appear that 
any person now will undertake 
to do what Elkington did sixty 
years back.” 

In the Patent Office Deport 
for 1851, at page 14, may be 
found an article entitled, “We - 
digging,” in which it is gravely 
contended, and not without a 
fair show of evidence, that cer 
tain persons possess the power 
of indicating, by means of a sort of divining rod of hazel 
or willow, subterraneous currents or springs of water. 



Fig- 











36 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


This power has been called Bletonism, which is defined by 
Webster to be, “ the faculty of perceiving and indicating 
subterraneous springs and currents by sensation—so 
called from one Bleton, of France, who possessed this 
faculty.” 

Under the authority of Webster, and of Mr. Ewbank, 
the Commissioner of Patents, in wdiose report the article 
in question was published by the Government of the 
United States, it will not be considered, perhaps, as put¬ 
ting faith in “ water-witchery,” to suggest that, possibly, 
Elkington did reallyqiossess a faculty, not common to all 
mankind, of detecting running water or springs, even far 
below the surface. We have the high authority of Tam 
o’ Slianter for the opinion, that witches cannot cross a 
stream of water; for, when pursued by the “ hellish legion” 
from Kirk-Alloway, he put his “glide mare Meg” to do 
her “ speedy utmost” for the bridge of Doon, knowing 
that, 

“A running stream theydarena cross.” 

If witches are thus affected by flowing water, there is 
no reason to doubt that others, of peculiar organization, 
may possess some sensitiveness at its presence. 

It would not, probably, be useful to pursue more into 
detail the method of Mr. Elkington. The general prin¬ 
ciples upon which he wrought have been sufficiently ex¬ 
plained. The miracles performed under his system seem 
to have ceased with his life, and, until v’e receive some 
new revelation as to the mode of finding the springs 
hidden in the earth, we must be content with the moderate 
results of a careful application of ordinary science, and not 
be discouraged in our attempts to leave the earth the better 
for our having lived on it, if w^e do not, like Elkington, 
succeed in draining, by a single ditch and a few auger 
holes, sixty statute acres of land. 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


37 


THE DEANSTON SYSTEM; OR, FREQUENT DRAINAGE. 

James Smith, Esq., of Deanston, Sterlingshire, in Scot¬ 
land, next after Elkington, in point of time, is the promi¬ 
nent leader of drainage operations in Great Britain. Elis 
peculiar views came into general notice about 1832, and, 
in 1844, we find published a seventh edition of his “ Re¬ 
marks on Thorough Draining.” Smith was a man of edu¬ 
cation, and seems to be, in fact, the first advocate of any 
system worthy the name of thorough drainage. 

Instead of the few very deep drains, cut with reference 
to particular springs or sources of wetness, adopted by 
Elkington, Smith advocated and practiced a systematic 
operation over the whole field, at regular distances and 
shallow depths. Smith states, that in Scotland, much 
more injury arises from the retention of rain water, than 
from springs; while Elkington’s attention seems to have 
been especially directed to springs, as the source of the 
evil. 

The characteristic views of Smith, of Deanston, as stated 
by Mr. Denton, were : 

“ 1st. Frequent"drains at intervals of from ten to twenty-four feet. 

u 2nd. Shallow depth—not exceeding thirty inches—designed for the 
single purpose of freeing that depth of soil from stagnant and injurious 
water. 

Ll 3rd. 1 Parallel drains; at regular distances carried throughout the 
whole field, without reference to the wet and dry appearance of por¬ 
tions of the field,’ in order { to provide frequent opportunities for the 
water, rising from below and falling on the surface, to pass freely and 
completely off. 

u 4th. Direction of- the minor drains 1 down the steep,’ and that ot 
the mains along the bottom of the chief hollow; tributary mains being 
provided for the lesser hollows. 

u The reason assigned for the minor drains following the line o* 
steepest descent, was, that c the stratification generally lies in sheets at 
an angle to the surface.’ 

“ 5th. As to material —Stones preferred to tiles and pipes.” 


38 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Mr. Smith somewhat modified his views during the last 
years of his life, especially as to the depth of drains, and, 
instead of shallow drains, recommended a depth of three 
feet, and even more in some cases ; hut continued, to the 
time of his death, which occurred about 1S5T, to oppose 
any increased intervals between the drains, and the ex¬ 
treme depth of four feet and more advocated by others. 
The peculiar points insisted on by Smith were, that drains 
should be near and parallel. His own words are : 

11 The drains should he parallel with each other and at regular dis¬ 
tances. and should be carried throughout the whole field, without regard 
to the wet and dry appearance of portions of the field—the principle of 
this system being the providing of frequent opportunities for the water 
rising from below, or falling on the surface, to pass freely and com¬ 
pletely off? 7 

Mr. Smith called it the “ frequent drain system, 5 ’ and 
Mr. Denton says, that, “ for distinction sake, I have ven¬ 
tured to christen this ready-made practice, the gridiron 
system ” a n#me, by the way, wdiich will, probably, seem 
to most readers more distinctive than respectful. What¬ 
ever may be the improvements on the Deanston method 
of draining, the name of Mr. Smith deserves, and, indeed, 
lias already obtained, a high place among the improvers 
of agriculture. 

VIEWS OF MR. PARKES. 

About the year 1S46, when the first Act of the British 
Parliament authorizing “ the advance of public money to 
promote the improvement of land by works of drainage 55 
was passed, a careful investigation of the whole subject 
was made by a Committee of the House of Lords, and it 
was found that the best recorded opinions, if we except 
the peculiar views of Elkington, were represented by, if 
not merged into, those of Smith, of Deanston, which have 
already been stated, or those of Josiah Parkes. Mr. 
Parkes is the author of “ Essays on the Philosophy and 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


39 


Art of Land Drainage,” and of many valuable papers on 
the same subject, published in the journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society, of which he was consulting engineer. 
He is spoken of by Mr. Denton as “ one whose philo¬ 
sophical publications on the same subject gave a scientific 
bearing to it, quite irreconcilable with the more mechan¬ 
ical rules laid down by Mr. Smith.” 

The characteristic views of Mr. Parkes, as set forth at 
that time, as compared with those of Mr. Smith, are— 

1st. Less frequent drains , at intervals varying from twenty-one to 
fifty feet, with preference for ivide intervals. 

l: 2nd. Deeper drains at a minimum depth of four feet , designed with 
the two-fold object of not only freeing the active soil from stagnant and 
injurious water, but of converting the water falling on the surface into 
an agent for fertilizing; no drainage being deemed efficient that did not 
both remove the water falling on the surface, and : keep down the sub¬ 
terranean water at a depth exceeding the power of capillary attraction 
to elevate it to near the surface.’ 

£: 3rd. Parallel arrangement of drains , as advocated by Smith, of 
Deanston. 

(i 4th. The advantage of increased dcpth : as compensating for increased 
width between the drains. 

11 5th. Pipes of u,n inch bore : the £ best known conduit ’ for the parallel 
drains. (See Evidence before Lords’ Committee on Entailed Estates, 
1845, Q. 67.) 

“ 6th. The cost of draining uniform clays should not exceed £3 per 
acreP 

The most material differences between the views of 
these two leaders of what have been deemed rival systems 
of drainage, will be seen to be the following. Smith 
advocates drains of two to three feet in depth, at from 
ten to twenty-four feet distances ; while Parkes contends 
for a depth of not less than four feet, with a width between 
of from twenty-one to fifty feet, the depth in some measure 
compensating for the increased distance. 

Mr. Parkes advocated the use of pipes of one inch bore, 


40 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


which Mr. Smith contemptuously denominated a pencil- 
cases,” and which subsequent experience has shown to be 
quite too small for prudent use. 

The estimate of Mr. Parkes, based, in part, upon his 
wide distances and small pipes, that drainage might be 
effected generally in England at a cost of about fifteen 
dollars per acre, was soon found to be far below the 
average expense, which is now estimated at nearly double 
that sum. 

The Enclosure Commissioners, after the most careful 
inquiry, adopted fully the views of Mr. Parkes as to the 
depth of drains. Mr. Parkes himself, saw occasion to 
modify his ideas, as to the cost of drainage, upon further 
investigation of the subject, and fixed his estimates as 
ranging from $15 to $30 per acre, according to soil and 
other local circumstances. 

It has been well said by a recent English writer, of Mr. 
Parkes: 

“ That gentleman’s services in the cause of drainage, have been in¬ 
estimable, and his high reputation will not be affected by any remarks 
which experience may suggest with reference to details, so long as the 
philosophical principles he first advanced in support of deep drainage 
are acknowledged by thinking men. Mr. Parkes’ practice in 1854, will 
be found to differ very considerably from his anticipations of 1845, but 
the influence of his earlier writings and sayings continues to this day.’’ 

THE KEYTIIORPE SYSTEM. 

Lord Berners having adopted a method of drainage on 
his estate at Keythorpe , differing somewhat from any of 
the regular and more uniform modes which have been 
considered, a sharp controversy as to its merits has arisen, 
and still continues in England, which, like most contro¬ 
versies, may be of more advantage to others than to the 
parties immediately concerned. 

The theory of the Keythorpe system seems to have been 
invented by Mr. Joshua Trimmer, a distinguished geologist 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


41 


of England, wlio, about 1854, produced a paper, which 
was published in the journal of the Royal Agricultural 
Society, on the “ Keythorpe System.” He states that his 
own theory was based entirely on his knowledge of the 
geological structure of the earth, which will be presently 
given in his own language, and that he afterwards ascer¬ 
tained that Lord Berners, who had no special theory to 
vindicate, had, by the “ tentative process,” or in plain 
English, by trying experiments, hit upon substantially 
the same system, and found it to work admirably. 

Most people in the United States have no idea of what 
it is to be patronized by a lord. In England, it is thought 
by many to be the thing needful to the chance, even, of 
success of any new theory, and accordingly, Mr. Trimmer, 
without hesitation, availed himself of the privilege of 
being patronized by Lord Berners ; and the latter, before 
he was aware of how much the agricultural world was 
indebted to him for his valuable discoveries, suddenly 
found himself at the head of the u Keythorpe System of 
Drainage.” 

His lordship was probably as much surprised to ascer¬ 
tain that he had been working out a new system, as some 
man of whom we have heard, was, to learn that he had 
been speaking prose all his life ! At the call of the public, 
however, his lordship at once gave to the world the facts 
in his possession, making no claim to any great discovery, 
and leaving Mr. Trimmer to defend the new system as 
best he might. The latter, in one of his pamphlets pub¬ 
lished in defence of the Keythorpe system, states its claims 
as follows: 

u The peculiarities of the Keythorpe system of draining consist in 
this—that the parallel drains are not equidistant, and that they cross 
the line of the greatest descent. The usual depth is three and a half 
feet, but some are as deep as five and six feet. The depth and width 
of interval are determined by digging trial-holes, in order to ascertain 
not only the depth at which the bottom water is reached, but the height 


42 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


to which the water rises in the holes, and the distance at which a drain 
will lay the hole dry. In sinking these holes, clay-banks arc found, 
with hollows or furrows between them, which are filled with a more 
porous soil, as represented in the annexed sectional diagram. 


a a a a a a a 



a a Trial-lioles. 

& Clay-banks of lias or of boulder-clay. 

c A more porous warp-drift filling furrows between the clay-banks. 


“The next object is to connect these furrows by drains laid across 
them. The result is, that as the furrows and ridges here run along 
the fall of the ground, which I have observed to be the case generally 
elsewhere, the submains follow the fall, and the parallel drains cross 
it obliquely. 

“ The intervals between the parallel drains are irregular, varying, in 
the same field, from 14 to 21, 31. and 59 feet. The distances are de¬ 
termined by opening the diagonal drains at the greatest distance from 
the trial-holes at which experience has taught the practicability of its 
draining the hole. If it does not succeed in accomplishing the object, 
another drain is opened in the interval It has been found, in many 
cases, that a drain crossing the clay-banks and furrows takes the water 
from holes lying lower down the hill ; that is to say, it intercepts the 
water flowing to them through these subterranean channels. The par¬ 
allel drains, however, are not invariably laid across the fall. The ex¬ 
ceptions are on ground where the fall is very slight, in which case they 
are laid along the line of greatest descent. On such grounds there are 
few or no clay-banks and furrows.” 

It would seem highly probable that the mode of drain¬ 
age adopted at Keythorpe, is indebted for its success 
at that place, to a geological formation not often met with. 
At a public discussion in England, Mr. T. Scott, a gentle¬ 
man of large experience in draining, stated that “ he 
never, in his practice, had met with such a geological 







HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


43 


formation as was said to exist at Keytliorpe, except in 
such large areas as to admit of their being drained in the 
usual gridiron or parallel fashion.” 

It is claimed for this system by its advocates, that it is 
far cheaper than any other, because drains are only laid 
in the places where, by careful examination beforehand, 
by opening pits, they are found to be necessary; and that 
is a great saving of expense, when compared with the 
system of laying the drains at equal distances and depths 
over the field. 

Against what is urged as the Iveythorpe system, several 
allegations are brought. 

In the first place, that it is in fact no system. Mr. Den¬ 
ton, having carefully examined the Keytliorpe estate, and 
the published statements of its owner, asserts, that the 
drains there laid have no uniformity of depth —part of the 
tiles being laid but eighteen inches deep, and others four 
feet and more, in the same field. 

Secondly, that there is no uniformity as to direction — 
part of the drains being laid across the fall, and part with 
the fall, in the same fields—with no obvious reason for the 
difference of direction. 

Thirdly, that there is no uniformity as to materials —a 
part of the drains being wood, and a part tiles, in the 
same field. 

Finally, it is contended that there is no saving of 
expense in the Keytliorpe draining, over the ordinary 
mode, when all points are considered, because the pre¬ 
tended saving is made by the use of wood, where true 
economy would require tiles, and shallow drains are used 
where deeper ones would in the end be cheaper. 

In speaking of this controversy, it is due to Lord 
Berners to say, that he expressly disclaims any invention 
or novelty in his operations at Keytliorpe. 

On the whole, although a work at the present day 


44 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


which should pass over, without consideration, the claims 
of the Keythorpe system, would he quite incomplete in its 
history of the subject, yet the facts elicited with regard 
to it are perhaps chiefly valuable, as tending to show the 
danger of basing a general principle upon an isolated 
case. 

The discussion of the claims of that system—if such it 
may be called—may be valuable in America, where 
novelty is sure to attract, by showing that one more form 
of error has already been tried and “ found wanting 
and so save us the trouble of proving its inutility by 
experiment. 

THE WHARNCLIFFE SYSTEM. 

Lord Wliarnclifle, with a view to effect adequate drain¬ 
age at less expense than is usual in thorough drainage, 
has adopted upon his estate a sort of compromise system, 
which he has brought to the notice of the public in the 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. 

Upon Fontenelle’s idea, that “mankind only settle into 
the right course after passing through and exhausting all 
the varieties of error,” it is well to advise our readers of 
this particular form of error also—to show that it has 
already been tried—so that no patent of invention can be 
claimed upon it by those perverse persons who are not 
satisfied without constant change, and who seem to imagine 
that the ten commandments might be improved by a new 
edition. 

Lord Wharncliffe states his principles as follows, and 
calls his method the combined system of deep and shallow 
drainage: 

“ In order to secure the full effect of thorough drainage in clays, it is 
necessary that there should be not only well-laid conduits for the water 
which reaches them, but also subsidiary passages opened through the 
substance of the close subsoil, by means of atmospheric heat, and the 
contraction which ensues from it. The cracks and fissures which result 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


45 


from this action, are reckoned upon as a certain and essential part of 
the process. 

“To give efficiency, therefore, to a system of deep drains beneath a 
stiff clay, these natural channels are required. To produce them, there 
must be a continued action of heat and evaporation. If we draw off 
effectually and constantly the bottom water from beneath the clay and 
from its substance, as far as it admits of percolation, and by some other 
means provide a vent for the upper water, which needs no more than 
this facility to run freely, there seems good reason to suppose that the 
object may be completely attained, and that we shall remove the 
moisture from both portions as effectually as its quantity and the sub¬ 
stance will permit. Acting upon this view, then, after due considera¬ 
tion, I determined to combine with the fundamental four-feet drains a 
system of auxiliary ones of much less depth, which should do their 
work above, and contribute their share to the wholesome discharge, 
while the under-current from their more subterranean neighbors should 
be steadily performing their more difficult duty. 

“ I accomplished this, by placing my four-feet drains at a distance of 
from eighteen to twenty yards apart, and then leading others into them, 
sunk only to about two feet beneath the surface (which appeared, upon 
consideration, to be sufficiently below any conceivable depth of culti¬ 
vation), and laying these at a distance from each other of eight yards. 
These latter are laid at an acute angle with the main-drains, and at 
their mouths are either gradually sloped downwards to the lower level, 
or have a few loose stones placed in the same intervals between the two, 
sufficient to ensure the perpendicular descent of the upper stream 
through that space, which can never exceed, or, indeed, strictly equal, 
the additional two feet." 

*4B t 

There are two reasons why this mode of drainage can¬ 
not be adopted in the northern part of the United States. 

First: The two-foot drains would he liable to be frozen 
up solid, every winter. 

Secondly: The subsoil plow, now coming into use 
among our best cultivators, runs to so great a depth as to 
be likely to entirely destroy two-foot drains at the first 
operation, even if it were not intended to run the sub- 
soiler to a greater general depth than eighteen inches. 
Any one who has had experience in holding a subsoil- 


46 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


plow, must know that it is an implement somewhat un¬ 
manageable, and liable to plunge deep into soft spots like 
the covering over drains; so that no skill or care could 
render its use safe over two-foot drains. 

The history of drainage in America, is soon given. It 
begins here, as it must begin everywhere, when practiced 
as a general system, with the introduction of tiles. 

In 1835, Mr. John Johnston, of Seneca County, Hew 
York, a Scotchman by birth, imported from Scotland pat¬ 
terns of drain-tiles, and caused them to be made by hand- 
labor, and set the example of their use on his own farm. 
The effects of Mr. Johnston’s operations were so striking, 
that in 184S, John Delafield, Esq., for a long time Pre¬ 
sident of the Seneca County Agricultural Society, im¬ 
ported from England one of Scragg’s Patent Tile machines. 
From that time, tile-draining in that county, and in the 
neighboring counties, has been diligently and profitably 
pursued. Several interesting statements of successful ex¬ 
periments by Mr. Johnston, Mr. Delafield, Mr. Theron G. 
Yeomans of Wayne County, and others, have been pub¬ 
lished, from time to time, in the “ Hew York Transactions.” 
Indeed, most of our information of experimental draining 
in this country, has come from that quarter. 

Mr. Johnston, for more than twenty years, has made 
himself useful to the country, and at the same time gained 
a wide reputation for himself, by occasional publications 
on the subject of drainage. 

In addition to this, his practical knowledge of a°Ti 
culture, and especially of the subject of drainage, has 
gained for him a competence for his declining years. In 
this we rejoice; and trust that in these, his latter years, 
he may be made ever to feel, that even they among us 
of the friends of agriculture who have not known him 
personally, are not unmindul of their obligations to him as 
the leader of a most beneficent enterprise. 


HISTORY OF DRAINING. 


47 


Tile-works have since been established at various places 
in New York, at several places in Massachusetts, Ohio, 
Michigan, and many other States. The first drain-tiles 
used in New-Hampshire, were brought from Albany, in 
1B54, by Mr. William Conner, and used on his farm in 
Exeter, that year; and the following year, the writer 
brought some from Albany, and laid them on his farm, in 
the same town. 

In 1857, tile-works were put in operation at Exeter; 
and some 40,000 tiles were made that year. 

The horse-shoe tiles, we understand, have been gen¬ 
erally used in New York. At Albany, and in Massa¬ 
chusetts, the sole-tile has been of late years preferred. 
We cannot learn that cylindrical pipes have ever been 
manufactured in this country until the Summer of 185S ? 
when the engineers of the New York Central Park pro¬ 
cured them to be made, and laid them, with collars, in 
their drainage-works there. This is believed to be the 
first practical introduction into this country of round pipes 
and collars, which are regarded in England as the most 
perfect means of drainage. 

Experiments all over the country, in reclaiming bog- 
meadows, and in draining wet lands with drains of stone 
and wood, have been attempted, with various success. 

Those attempts we regard as merely efforts in the right 
direction, and rather as evidence of a general conviction 
of the want, by the American farmer, of a cheap and effi 
cient mode of drainage, than as an introduction of a 
system of thorough drainage; for—as we think will ap¬ 
pear in the course of this work—no system of drainage 
can be made sufficiently cheap and efficient for general 
adoption, with other materials than drain-tiles. 


48 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER III. 

RAIN, EVAPORATION, AND FILTRATION. 

Fertilizing Substances in Rain Water.—Amount of Rain Fall in United 
States—in England.—Tables of Rain Fall.—Number of Rainy Days, and 
Quantity of Rain each Month.—Snow, how Computed as Water.—Pro¬ 
portion of Rain Evaporated.—What Quantity of Water Dry Soil will Hold. 
—Dew Point.—How Evaporation Cools Bodies.—Artificial Heat Under¬ 
ground.—Tables of Filtration and Evaporation. 

Although we usually regard drainage as a means of 
rendering land sufficiently dry for cultivation, that is by 
no means a comprehensive view of the objects of the 
operation. 

Rain is the principal source of moisture, and a sur¬ 
plus of moisture is the evil against which we contend in 
draining. But rain is also a principal source of fertility, 
not only because it affords the necessary moisture to dis¬ 
solve the elements of fertility already in the soil, but also 
because it contains in itself, or brings with it from the 
atmosphere, valuable fertilizing substances. In a learned 
article by Mr. Caird, in the Cyclopedia of Agriculture, on 
the Rotation of Crops, he says : 

“ The surprising effects of a fallow, even when unaided by any 
manure, has received some explanation by the recent discovery of Mr. 
Barral, that rain-water contains within itself,and conveys into the soil, 
fertilizing substances of the utmost importance, equivalent, in a fall of 
rain of 24 inches per annum, to the quantity of ammonia contained in 
2 cwt. of Peruvian guano, with 150 lbs. of nitrogeneous matter besides, 
all suited to the nutrition of our crops.” 


RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


49 


About 42 inches of rain may be taken as a fair general 
average of the rain-fall in the United States. If this sup¬ 
plies as much ammonia to the soil as 3 cwt. of Peruvian 
guano to the acre, which is considered a liberal manuring, 
and which is valuable principally for its ammonia, we at 
once see the importance of retaining the rain-water long 
enough upon our fields, at least, to rob it of its treasures. 
But rain-water has a farther value than has yet been sug¬ 
gested : 

“Rain-water always contains in solution, air, carbonic acid, and am¬ 
monia. The two first ingredients are among the most powerful disin¬ 
tegrators of a soil. The oxygen of the air, and the carbonic acid being 
both in a highly condensed form, by being dissolved, possess very 
powerful affinities for the ingredients of the soil. The oxygen attacks 
and oxydizes the iron ; the carbonic acid seizing the lime and potash 
and other alkaline ingredients of the soil, produces a further disintegra¬ 
tion, and renders available the locked-up ingredients of this magazine of 
nutriment. Before these can be used by plants, they must be rendered 
soluble ; and this is only affected by the free and renewed access of 
rain and air. The ready passage of both of these, therefore, enables the 
soil to yield up its concealed nutriment.” 

We see, then, that the rains of heaven bring us not only 
water, but food for our plants, and that, while we would 
remove by proper drainage the surplus moisture, we 
should take care to first conduct it through the soil far 
enQugh to fulfill its mission of fertility. We cannot sup¬ 
pose that all rain-water brings to our fields precisely the 
same proportion of the elements of fertility, because the 
foreign properties with which it is charged, must contin¬ 
ually vary with the condition of the atmosphere through 
which it falls, whether it be the thick and murky cloud 
which overhangs the coal-burning city, or the transparent 
ether of the mountain tops. We may see, too, by the 
tables, that the quantity of rain that falls, varies much, 
not only with the varying seasons of the year, and with 
the different seasons of different years, but with the dis- 


3 


50 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


tance from the equator, the diversity of mountain and 
river, and lake and wood, and especially with locality as 
to the ocean. Yet the average results of nature’s opera¬ 
tions through a series of years, are startlingly constant 
and uniform, and we may deduce from tables of rain-falls, 
as from bills of mortality and tables of longevity, conclu¬ 
sions almost as reliable as from mathematical premises. 

The quantity of rain is generally increased by the 
locality of mountain ranges. “Thus, at the Edinburgh 
Water Company’s works, on the Pentland Hills, there fell 
in 1849, nearly twice as much rain as at Edinburgh, 
although the distance between the two places is only 
seven miles.” 

Although a much greater quantity of rain falls in 
mountainous districts (within certain limits of elevation) 
than in the plains, yet a greater quantity of rain falls at 
the surface of the ground than at an elevation of a few 
hundred feet. Thus, from experiments which were care¬ 
fully made at York, it was ascertained that there fell 
eight and a half inches more rain at the surface of the 
ground, in the course of twelve months, than at the top 
of the Minster, which is 212 feet high. Similar results 
have been obtained in many other places. 

Some observations upon this point may also be found 
in the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1855, at 
p. 210, given by Professor C. W. Morris, of Hew York. 

Again, the evaporation from the surface of water being 
much greater than from the land, clouds that are w r afted 
by the winds from the sea to the land, condense their 
vapor upon the colder hills and mountain sides, and yield 
rain, so that high lands near the sea or other large bodies 
of water, from which the winds generally blow, have a 
greater proportion of rainy days and a greater fall of rain 
than lands more remote from water. The annual rain¬ 
fall in the lake districts in Cumberland County, in Eng¬ 
land, sometimes amounts to more than 150 inches. 


RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


51 


With a desire to contribute as much as possible to the 
stock of accurate knowledge on this subject, we availed 
ourselves of the kindly offered services of our friends, 
Shedd and Edson, in preparing a carefully considered 
article upon a part of our general subject, which has 
much engaged their attention. Neither the article itself, 
nor the observations of Dr. Hobbs, which form a part of 
its basis, has ever before been published, and we believe 
our pages cannot be better occupied than by giving them 
in the language of our friends : 

“ All vegetables, in the various stages of growth, re¬ 
quire warmth, air, and moisture, to support life and 
health. 

Below the surface of the ground there is a body of 
stagnant 'water, sometimes at a great depth, but in reten¬ 
tive soils usually within a foot or two of the surface. 
This stagnant water not only excludes the air, but ren¬ 
ders the soil much colder, and, being in itself of no 
benefit, without warmth and air, its removal to a greater 
depth is very desirable. 

A knowledge of the depth to which this water-table 
should be removed, and of the means of removing it, con¬ 
stitutes the science of draining, and in its discussion, a 
knowledge of the rain-fall, humidity of the atmosphere, 
and amount of evaporation, is very important. 

The amount of rain-fall, as shown by the hyetal, or 
rain-chart, of North America, by Lorin Blodget, is thirty 
inches vertical depth in the basin of the great lakes ; 
thirty-two inches on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain; 
thirty-six inches in the valley of the Hudson, on the head 
waters of the Ohio, through the middle portions of Penn¬ 
sylvania and Virginia, and western portion of North 
Carolina ; forty inches in the extreme eastern and the 
northern portion of Maine, northern portions of New 
Hampshire and Vermont, south-eastern counties of Massa- 


52 


FA KM DRAINAGE. 


chusetts, Central New York, north-east portion of Penn¬ 
sylvania, south-east portion of New Jersey and Delaware ; 
also, on a narrow belt running down from the western 
portion of Maryland, through Virginia and North Caro¬ 
lina, to the north-western portion of South Carolina ; 
thence, up through the western portion of Virginia, north¬ 
east portion of Ohio, Northern Indiana and Illinois, to 
Prairie du Chien; forty-two inches on the east coast of 
Maine, Eastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con¬ 
necticut, and middle portion of Maryland ; thence, on a 
narrow belt to South Carolina; thence, up through Eastern 
Tennessee, through Central Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 
to Iowa; thence, down through Western Missouri and Texas 
to the Gulf of Mexico; forty-five inches from Concord, 
New Hampshire, through Worcester, Mass., Western 
Connecticut, and the City of New York, to the Susque¬ 
hanna River, just north of Maryland; also, at Rich¬ 
mond, Va., Raleigh, N. C., Augusta, Geo., Knoxville, 
Tenn., Indianopolis, Ind., Springfield, Ill., St. Louis, Mo.; 
thence, through Western Arkansas, across Red River to 
the Gulf of Mexico. From the belt just described, the 
rain-fall increases inland and southward, until at Mobile, 
Ala., the rain-fall is sixty-three inches. The same amount 
also falls in the extreme southern portion of Florida. 

In England, the average rain-fall in the eastern portion 
is represented at twenty inches ; in the middle portion, 
twenty-two inches ; in the southern and western, thirty 
inches; in the extreme south-western, forty-five inches ; 
and in Wales, fifty inches. In the eastern portion of Ire¬ 
land, it is twenty-five inches ; and in the western, forty 
inches/ 

Observations at London for forty years, by Dalton, 
gave average fall of 20.69 inches. Observations at New 
Bedford, Mass., for forty-three years, by S. Rodman, gave 
average fall of 41.03 inches—about double the amount in 


RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


53 


London. The mean quantity for each month, at both 
places, is as follows: 



New Bedford. 

London. 

January. 

. 3.36 . 

1.46 

February. 

. 3.32 . 

.. 1.25 

March. 

. 3.44 . 

1.17 

April. 

. 3.60 . 

1.28 

May. 

. 3.63 . 

1.64 

June. 

. 2.71 . 

. 1.74 

July. 

. 2.86 . 

2.45 

August. 

. 3.61 . 

. 1.81 

September. 

. 3.33 . 

. 1.84 

October. 

. 3.46 . 

. 2.09 

November.. 

. 3.97 . 

. 2.22 

December. 

. 3.74 . 

. 1.74 




Spring.. 

. 10.67 . 

. 4.09 

Summer.. 

. 9.18 . 

.1 6.00 

Autumn .... 

. 10.76 . 

. 6.15 

Winter.. 

. 10.42 . 

. 4.45 




Year. 

.41.03 . 

.20.69 


Another very striking difference between the two coun¬ 
tries is shown by a comparison of the quantity of water 
falling in single days. The following table, given in the 
Radcliffe Observatory Reports, Oxford, England, 15th 
volume, shows the proportion of very light rains thefts. 
The observation was in the year 1854. Rain fell on 156 
days : • 


73 days gave less than. 

30 “ between that and 


27 

cc 

between 

.10 

u 

9 

cc 

cc 

.20 

cc 

9 

cc 

cc 

.30 

cc 

4 

cc 

cc 

.40 

u 


1 gave 


.05 inch. 

.10 

cc 

.20 

cc 

.30 

it 

.40 

cc 

.50 

a 

.60 

cc 

.80 

cc 

1.00 

cc 



















































54 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Nearly half the number gave less fall than five-hun¬ 
dredths of an inch, and more than four-fifths the number 
gave less than one-fiftli of an inch, and none gave over an 
inch. 

There is more rain in the United States, by a large 
measure, than there ; but the amount falls in less time, and 
the average of saturation is certainly much less here. 
From manuscript records, furnished us by Dr. Hobbs, of 
Waltham, Mass., we find, that the quantity falling in the 
year 1854, was equal to the average quantity for thirty 
years, and that rain fell on fifty-four days, in the propor¬ 
tion as follows : 

Number of rainy days, 54 ; total rain-fall, 41.29. 


0 days gave less than.... 




. .05 inch. 

2 

it 

between that and.. 



. .10 

cc 

8 

it 

between 

.10 

u 



. .20 

it 

7 

a 

it 

.20 

it 



. .30 

it 

5 

it 

u 

.30 

it 



. .40 

tt 

4 

tt 

tt 

.40 

tt 



. .50 

it 

2 

it 

a 

.50 

it 



. .60 

it 

4 

It 

it 

.60 

a 



o 

i 

it 

4 

It 

tt 

.70 

tt 



o 

00 

• 

1 

tt 

3 

it 

tt 

.80 

tt 



. .90 

it 

0 

It 

tt 

.90 

it 



. 1.00 

it 

0 

a 

tt 

1.00 

a 



. 1.10 

it 

2 

It 

it 

1.10 

it 



. 1.20 

tt 

1 

tl 

it 

1.20 

tt 



. 1.30 

it 

1 

tt 

tt 

1.30 

it 



. 1.40 

it 

3 

It 

tt 

1.40 

tt 



. 1.50 

a 

2 

It 

tt 

1.50 

it 



. 1.60 

a 

1 

a 

tt 

1.60 

it 



. 1.70 

it 

2 

tt 

it 

1.80 

it 



. 1.90 

tt 

1 

tt 

a 

2.30 

a 



. 2.40 

a 

1 

It • 

it 

2.50 

it 



. 2.60 

it 

1 

tl 

it 

3.20 

it 



. 3.30 

it 


No lain-fall gave less than five-hundredths of an inch; 
and more than one-fourth the number of days gave more 
























RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


55 


than one inch. In 1850, four years earlier, the rain-fall 
for the year, in Waltham, was 62.13 inches, the greatest 
recorded by observations kept since 1824. It fell as shown 
in the table : 


Humber of rainy days, 58 ; total rain-fall, 62.13. 


3 days gave between 

.05 : 

and 

4 

u 

.10 

u 

6 

a 

.20 

u 

3 

a 

.30 

u 

5 

ll 

.40 

u 

3 

u 

.50 

a 

3 

u 

.60 

u 

3 

u 

.70 

u 

2 

u 

.80 

u 

1 

u 

.90 

u 

3 

u 

1.00 

u 

7 

u 

1.20 

n 

2 

a 

1.80 

u 

2 

a 

1.90 

u 

3 

u 

2.00 

u 

2 

u 

2.10 

u 

1 

u 

2.30 

u 

1 

u 

2.50 

u 

1 

u 

2.60 

u 

1 

u 

2.80 

n 

1 

u 

3.60 

u 

1 

u 

4.50 

u 


.10 inches. 


.20 

n 

.30 

u 

.40 

u 

.50 

u 

.60 

u 

.70 

a 

.80 

ii 

.90 

u 

1.00 

u 

1.10 

u 

1.30 

u 

1.90 

u 

2.00 

n 

2.10 

u 

2.20 

u 

2.40 

u 

2.60 

ti 

2.70 

u 

2.90 

u 

3.70 

d 

4.60 

u 


Sept. 7th and 8th, in 24 hours, 6.8S inches of rain fell, 

the greatest quantity recorded in one day. 

In 1846—still earlier by four years—the rain-fall in 

Waltham was 26.90 inches—the least recorded bv the 

«/ 

same observations. It fell, as shown in the table : Hum¬ 
ber of rainy days, 49 ; total rain-fall, 26.90. 


3 days gave between .05 and.10 inches. 

7 “ .10 “ . 20 “ 

10 “ .20 “ 30 “ 

6 “ .30 “ 40 “ 

4 “ .40 “ 50 “ 





























56 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


3 days gave between .50 and . 60 inches. 

2 “ .70 “ _. -80 “ 

3 “ .80 “ -90 

1 “ .90 “ . 1.00 “ 

3 * “ 1.00 “ . 1.10 “ 

2 “ 1.10 “ . 1.20 “ 

1 ££ 1.20 “ 1.30 ££ 

2 “ 1.40 “ 1.50 “ 

1 ££ 1.50 « 1.60 <£ 

1 ££ 2.40 £k 2.50 “ 


The rain-fall in 1852 was very near the average for 
thirty years ; and the quantity falling in single storms, on 
sixty-three different occasions, as registered by Dr. Hobbs, 


was as 

follows 

: Humber of storms, 63 ; 

total 

rain-: 

42.24. 







7 storms gave less than. 



. .10 inches. 

11 

u 

between 

.10 and . 

. .20 

c 

9 

it 

u 

.20 

ii 

. .30 

u 

5 

it 

u 

.30 

u 

. .40 

u 

6 

u 

u 

.40 

u 

. .50 

ii 

5 

u 

u 

.50 

u 

. .60 

ii 

1 

u 

u 

.60 

u 

. .70 

ii 

1 

u 

a 

.70 

u 

. .80 

ii 

3 

u 

u 

.80 

it 

. .90 

<( 

1 

u 

u 

.90 

it 

. 1.00 

it 

5 

It 

li 

1.00 

n 

. 1.10 

it 

1 

ll 

ll 

1.10 

it 

. 1.20 

c( 

1 

u 

ll 

1.20 

u 

. 1.30 

it 

1 

it 

ll 

1.40 

u 

. 1.50 

it 

3 

u 

ll 

1.60 

u 

. 1.70 

ii 

1 

u 

in 5 days. 


• 

. 3.16 

a 

1 

u 

u 4 u 



. 4.38 

u 

1 

u 

ll 6 cc 



. 5.35 

it 


These tables are sufficient to show that provision must 
be made to carry off much greater quantities of water 
from lands in this country than in England. We add a 
table of the greatest fall of rain in any one day, for each 
month, and for the vear, from April, 1824, to 1st January, 






























RAIN AND EVAPORATION 


57 


1859. It also was abstracted from the manuscript of 
observations by Dr. Hobbs, and will be, w T e think, quite 
useful: 


Years . 

C-H 

P * 

P 

C 

P 

»-* 

i 

i 

i 

February . 

g 

P 

O 

P - 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

April. 

§ 

P 

i 

I 

I 

i 

I 

i 

June. 

July. 

August.... 

September.. 

October.... 

November 

December . . 

Greatest fall 
in the year. 

1824 




0.76 

0.67 

0.53 

0.44 

1.90 

2 54 

0.81 

0.76 

1.80 

2.54 

1 825 

2.16 


2.61 

0.27 

1.23 

1.37 

0.91 

2.51 

0.89 

1.32 

0.71 

2.40 

2.61 

826 

1.80 

0.56 

1.67 

0.89 

0.39 

1.78 

0.87 

1.80 

1.87 

1.37 

1.22 

1.41 

1.87 

1827 



3.81 

1.55 

2.42 

0.66 

1.36 

3.16 

4.93 

2.22 

3.85 

1.39 

4.93 

1828 

0.60 

1.48 

1.82 

2.06 

2.01 

1.44 

1.52 

0.14 

1.82 

1.52 

1.90 

0.29 

2.06 

1829 

3.86 

1.98 

4.12 

2.35 

1.15 

0.97 

1.92 

0.97 

1.39 

1.00 

1.25 

1.58 

4.12 

1830 

1.31 


1.17 

2.68 

2.28 

0.78 

1.84 

2.45 

2.40 

1.20 

2.64 

2.44 

2 68 

1831 

0.64 

1.48 

2.32 

2.12 

1.79 

1.87 

2.27 

1.00 

1.00 

2.82 

1.24 

0.15 

2.82 

1832 

2.68 

1.59 

2.00 

4.48 

2.52 

1.24 


2.13 

0.80 

1.50 

2.60 

1.34 

4.48 

833 

0.83 



2.57 

0.98 

2.03 

1.42 

0.64 

2.75 

2.32 

3.12 

1.27 

3.12 

34 


0.64 

1.31 

0.94 

2.35 

1.87 

2.12 

0.73 

1.25 

1.89 

2.42 

0.92 

2.42 

c $5 

1.44 

0.88 

2.48 

2.48 

1.18 

1.52 

4.72 

1.32 

1.57 

3.28 

0.74 

2.32 

4.72 

1836 

2.72 

3.04 

2.26 

1.86 

1.29 

2.24 

1.04 

0.72 

0.36 

2.04 

1.50 

1.68 

3.04 

1837 

3.62 

1.50 

1.14 

1.68 

1.46 

1.30 

0.72 

0.78 

0.66 

1.46 

0.81 

1.68 

3.62 

1838 

1.64 

0.75 

0.76 

1.32 

1.40 

1.67 

0.82 

1.40 

3.84 

1.10 

2.46 

1.00 

3.84 

1839 

0.70 

0.80 

0.58 

4.06 

2.98 

0.94 

1.08 

3.54 

0.70 

1.60 

0.80 

1.92 

4.06 

1840 

1.68 

2.20 

1.54 

2.12 

1.16 

1.08 

1.40 

2.72 

1.28 

1.04 

3.72 

1.12 

3.72 

1841 

1.44 

1.12 

1.32 

1.64 

0.90 

0.75 

0.64 

2.82 

2.78 

2.66 

1.05 

1.70 

2.82 

1842 

0.54 

1.22 

1.16 

0.64 

0.47 

2.10 

0.68 

1.44 

0.96 

0.34 

1.10 

2.02 

2.10 

1843 

1.60 

1.64 

2.50 

1.34 

0.34 

1.04 

1.98 

2.58 

0.52 

1.94 

1.28 


2.58 

1844 4.14 


2.06 

0.24 

0.58 

0.78 

0.86 

1.34 

1.76 

2.30 

1.86 

1.28 

4.14 

1845 

2.42 

1.70 

1.14 

0.70 

1.02 

1.03 

1.20 

1.66 

0.88 

1.16 

3.32 

1.46 

3.32 

1846 

1.54 


2.46 

1.16 

1.18 

0.82 

1.46 

0.49 

0.56 

0.55 

0.54 

1.02 

2.46 

1847 

1.18 

2.74 

1.66 

1.12 

0.84 

1.28 

0.56 

1.86 

2.16 

0.64 

2.74 

3.02 

3.02 

1848 

1.44 

1.56 

2.68 

0.68 

2.28 

1.00 

0.72 

1.24 

1.48 

2.96 

0.88 

1.00 

2.96 

1849 

1.36 

0.40 

2.30 

0.92 

1.28 

0.72 

1.52 

2.08 

1.12 

2.60 

2.48 

1.76 

2.60 

1850 

2.56 

1.92 

1.84 

2.68 

2.80 

1.20 

1.20 

3.68 

6.88 

1.04 

2 16 

1.92 

6.88 

1851 

0.80 

1.84 

0.56 

3.60 

1.92 

1.12 

0.96 

0.32 

1.15 

1.47 

2.25 

0.89 

3.60 

1852 

1.06 

0.88 

1.15 

4.38 

1.47 

1.69 

0.66 

4.16 

1.19 

1.61 

1.59 

0.89 

4.38 

1853 

0.92 

1.33 

1.03 

1.12 

2.39 

0.42 

1.03 

2.36 

2.14 

1.95 

1.67 

1.35 

2.39 

1854 

0.83 

1.60 

1.25 

1.88 

2.57 

1.50 

1.58 

0.48 

2.33 

1.82 

3.25 

1.43 

3.25 

1855 

3.37 

3.08 

0.80 

1.33 

0.39 

1.23 

1.93 

0 75 

0.70 

1.77 

2.22 

1.24 

3.37 

1856 


1.30 

0.63 

1.97 

2.93 

0.66 

1.30 

4 23 

2.42 

0.87 

0.88 

1.20 

4.23 

1857 

1.50 

0.54 

1.55 

3.68 

1.28 

0.96 

2.43 

2.00 

0.87 

3.54 

0.67 

1.28 

3.68 

1858 

1.12 

1.18 

0.35 

1.28 

1.00 

3.86 

1.35 

2.21 

1.64 

1.22 

1.36 

1.40 

3.86 


3* 








































58 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


The following table shows the record of rain-fall, as 
kept for one year; it was selected as a representative year, 
the total quantity falling being equal to the average. For 
the year 1840 : Number of rainy days, 50 ; total rain-fall, 
42.00. 


Days . 

e-H 

P 

S 

S 

P 

CD 

o' 

e 

p 

March 

April. 

1 

May . 

June . 

July .. 

Augus 

GO 

CD 

►a 

c*- 

o 

3 

Octobe 

3 

o 

< 

CO 

3 

U 

a> 

CO 

a> 

B 

i 

i 

i 

*<! 

i 

> 

l 

I 

i 

1 

l 

i 

l 

I 

i 

l 

i 

I 

1 

• 

l 

o' 

CD 

i-i 

• 

I 

o' 

o 

•-s 

CT* 

n> 

*-< 

i 

tU 

i 

i 

l 

i 

i 

1 

i 

1 

l 

1 

• 

i 

o 

* 

i 

I 

I 

i 

l 

i 

1 

l 

1 

• 

i 

1 

1 

i 

i 

i 

i 

t 

I 

1 

l 

1 « 

1 

1 




0.55 

0.14 



2.72 


0.64 



2 








0.08 


0.05 



3 



0.32 










4 






1.08 

0.10 






5 





1.16 




0.63 




6 








0.50 





7 













8 






0.20 







9 







0.25 




3.72 


10 


2.20 







1.28 




11 








0.10 





12 




2.12 







0.54 


13 






0.14 






1.12 

14 


0.58 






0.70 





15 











0.36 


16 













17 












* \ 

18 













19 






0.82 

0.24 


0.68 



1.04 

20 



1.54 







0.44 


21 





0.98 





1.04 



22 




0.52 







2.20 


23 

1.68 







0.96 



0.18 


24 







1.40 






25 








0.16 



0.35 


26 




0.18 









27 






0.17 



0.30 




28 













29 




1.80 



0.10 



1.40 



30 



1.42 







0.08 


1.04 

31 













Total 

1.68 

2.78 

3.28 5.17 

2.28 

2.41 

2.09 

5.22 

2.89 

3.65 

7.35^.20 



















































BAIN AND EYAPOBATION. 


59 


The average quantity of rain which has fallen in Wal¬ 
tham, during the important months of vegetation, from 
1824 to 1858 inclusive—a period of thirty-five years—is 
for— 

April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. 

3-96 3.71 3.18 3.38 4.50 3.52 

Average for the six months, 22.25. 

It will be noticed, that the average for the month of 
August is about 33 per cent, larger than for June and 
July. The quantity of rain falling in each month, as re¬ 
gistered at the Cambridge Observatory, is as follows : 

MEAN OF OBSERVATIONS FOR TWELVE YEARS. 

Jan. Felt. ■ Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Xov. Dec. 
2.39 3.19 3.47 3.64 3.74 3.13 2.57 5.47 4.27 3.73 4.57 4.31 

Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. 

10.85 11.17 12.57 9.89 

Average quantity per year, 44.48. 

The quantity falling from January to July, is much less 
than falls from July to January. 

The great quantity of snow which falls in Hew England 
during the Winter months, and is carried off mainly in the 
Spring, usually floods the low lands, and should be taken 
into account in establishing the size of pipe to be used in 
a system of drainage. The following observations of the 
average depth of snow, have been made at the places 
cited, and are copied, by Blodget, from various published 
notices: 


Oxford Co., Me. 

12 years. 

. 90 inches per year. 

Dover, N. H.. 

10 

cc 

. 68 

cc 

iC 

Montreal... 

10 

cc 

. 67 

cc 

cc 

Burlington, Vt. 

10 

cc 

. 85 

Cl 

cc 

Worcester, Mass. 

12 

cc 

. 55 

cc 

cc 

Amherst, u .... 

7 

cc 

. 54 

cc 

u 

Hartford, Conn.. 

24 

cc 

. 43 

cc 

cc 

Lambertville, N. J. .. 

8 

cc 

.25.5 

cc 

cc 

Cincinnati __i_ 

16 

cc 

. 19 

cc 

u 

Burlington, Iowa .... 

4 

cc 

.* 15.5 

cc 

cc 

Beloit, Wisconsin.... 

3 

cc 

.. 25 

cc 

cc 



















60 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


One-tenth the depth of snow is taken as its equivalent 
in water, for general purposes, though it gives too small a 
quantity of water in southern latitudes, and in extreme 
latitudes too great a quantity. The rule of reduction of 
snow to water, in cold climates, is one inch of water to 
twelve of snow. 

The proportion of the annual downfall of rain which is 
collectable into reservoirs—or, in other words, the per 
centage of the rain-fall which drains off—is well shown in 
a table*used by Ellwood Morris, Esq., C. E., in an article 
on “ The Proposed Improvement of the Ohio River” (Jour. 
Frank. Inst., Jan., 1858), in which we find, that, in eighteen 
series of observations in Great Britain, the ratio, or per 
cent, of the rain-fall which drains off is 65J, or nearly two- 
thirds the rain-fall. 

Seven series of -observations in America are cited as 
follows: 


No. 

Name 

of 

3 

i 

CJ GO 
"p <D 

*■3 

" 3.9 

age flowing 
in inches. 

or per ct. of 
rain which 
is off. 

Authorities . 


Drainage Area. 

c .9 

p 

< 

Drain 

away 

O O *3 
V* ~ Jp 
oS +-»'O 

Ph 


1 

Schuylkill Navigation 
Reservoirs.. 

36 

18 

50 


Morris and Smith. 

2 

Eaton Brook. 

34 

23 

66 


3 

4 

Madison Brook. 

Patroon’s Brook. 

35 

46 

18 

25 

50 

55 


► McAlpine. 

5 

u u 

42 

18 

42 



6 

Long Pond . 

40 

18 

44 

Boston Water Course. 

7 

West Fork Reservoir. 

36 

14 

40 

W. Milnor Roberts. 


Totals. 

269 

134 

347 



Averages. 

38 

.19 

50 






These examples show an average rain-fall of thirty- 
eight vertical inches, and an annual amount, collectable 
in reservoirs, of nineteen Inches, or fifty per cent. 

The percentage of water of drainage from land under- 


































RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


61 


drained with tile, would be greater than that which is 
collectable in reservoirs from ordinary gathering-grounds. 

If a soil were perfectly saturated with water, that is, 
held as much water in suspension as possible to hold 
without draining off, and drains were laid at a proper 
depth from the surface, and in sufficient number to take 
off all surplus water, then the entire rain-fall upon the 
surface would he water of drainage—presuming, of course, 
the land to be level, and the air at saturation, so as to 
prevent evaporation. The water coming upon the surface, 
would force out an equal quantity of water at the bottom, 
through the drains—the time occupied by the process, 
varying according to the porous or retentive nature of the 
soil; but in ordinary circumstances, it would be, perhaps, 
about forty-eight hours. Drains usually run much longer 
than this after a heavy rain, and, in fact, many run con¬ 
stantly through the year, but they are supplied from lands 
at a higher level, either near by or at a distance. 

If, on the other hand, the soil were perfectly dry, hold¬ 
ing no water in suspension, then there would he no water 
of drainage until the soil had become saturated. 

Evaporation is constantly carrying off* great quantities * 
of water during the warm months, so that under-drained 
soil is seldom in the condition of saturation, and, on 
account of the supply by capillary attraction and by dew, 
is never thoroughly dry ; but the same soil will, at different 
times, be at various points between saturation and dry¬ 
ness, and the water of drainage will be consequently a 
greater or less per centage of the rain-fall. 

An experiment made by the writer, to ascertain what 
quantity of water a dry soil would hold in suspension, 
resulted as follows : A soil was selected of about average 
porosity, so that the result might be, as nearly as possible, 
a mean for the various kinds of soil, and dried by several 
days’ baking. The quantity of soil then being carefully 


62 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


measured, a measured quantity of water was supplied 
slowly, until it began to escape at tlie bottom. The 
quantity draining away was measured and deducted from 
the total quantity supplied. It was thus ascertained that 
one cubic foot of earth held 0.4826+ cubic feet of water, 
which is a little more than three and one-half gallons. A 
dry soil, four feet deep, would hold a body of water equal 
to a rain-fall of 23.17 inches, vertical depth, which is more 
than would fall in six months. 

The quantity which is not drained away is used for 
vegetation or evaporated; and the fact, that the water of 
drainage is so much greater in proportion to the rain-fall 
in England than in this country, is owing to the humidity 
of that climate, in which the evaporation is only about 
half what it is in this country. 

The evaporation from a reservoir surface at Baltimore, 
during the Summer months, was assumed by Colonel 
Abert to be to the quantity of rain as two to one. 

Dr. Holyoke assigns the annual quantity evaporated at 
Salem, Mass., at fifty-six inches ; and Colonel Abert quotes 
several authorities at Cambridge, Mass., stating the quan¬ 
tity at fifty-six inches. These facts are given by Mr. 
Blodget, and also the table below. 

QUANTITY OF WATER EVAPORATED, IN INCHES, VERTICAL DEPTH. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oet. Nov. Dec. Year. 

W meai a Jf6VS and .’ [°- 88 104 477 254 414 454 420 3 - 40 3 - 12 493 1-09 30.03 

Ogdensburg, N. Y., 1 yr. 1.65 0.82 2.07 1,63 7.10 6.74 7.79 5.41 7.40 3.95 3.66 1.15 49.37 

Syracuse, N. Y., 1 year 0.67 1.48 2.24 3.42 7.31 7.60 9.08 6.S5 5.33 3.02 1.33 1.86 50.20 

The quantity for Whitehaven, England, is reported by 
J. F. Miller. It was very carefully observed, from 1843 
to 1848—the evaporation being from a copper vessel, pro¬ 
tected from rain. The district is one of the wettest of 
England—the mean quantity of rain, for the same time, 
having been 45.25 inches. 

This shows a great difference in the capacity of the air 


RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


63 


to absorb moisture in England and the United States; and 
as evaporation is a cooling process, there is greater neces¬ 
sity for under-draining in this country than in England, 
supposing circumstances in other respects to be similar. 

Evaporation takes place at any point of temperature 
from 32°, or lower, to 212°—at which water boils. It is 
increased by heat, but is not caused solely by it—for a 
north-west wind in Uew-England evaporates water, and 
dries the earth more rapidly than the heat alone of a Sum¬ 
mer’s day; and when, under ordinary circumstances, eva¬ 
poration from a water-surface is slow, it becomes quite, 
active when brought in close proximity to sulphuric acid, 
or other vapor-absorbing bodies. 

The cold which follows evaporation is caused by a loss 
of the heat which is required for evaporation, and which 
passes off with the vapor, as a solution, in the atmosphere ; 
and as heat leaves the body to aid evaporation, it is evi¬ 
dent that that body cannot be cooled by the process, below 
the dew-point at which evaporation ceases. The popular 
notion that a body may be cooled almost to the freezing- 
23 oint, in a hot Summer day, by the action of heat alone, 
is, then, erroneous. But still, the amount of heat which 
is used up in evaporating stagnant water from undrained 
land, that might otherwise go towards warming the land 
and the roots of crops, is a very serious loss. 

The difference in the temperature of a body, resulting 
from evaporation, may reach 25° in the desert interior of 
the American continent; but, in the Eastern States, it is 
not often more than 15°. 

The temperature of evaporation is the reading of a wet- 
bulb-thermometer (the bulb being covered with moistened 
gauze) exposed to the natural evaporation; and the dif¬ 
ference between that reading and the reading of a dry- 
thermometer, is the expression of the cold resulting from 
evaporation. 


64 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


When the air is nearly saturated, the temperature of the 
air rarely goes above 74°; but, if so, the moisture in the 
air prevents the passing away of insensible perspiration, 
and the joint action of heat and humidity exhausts the 
vital powers, causing sun-stroke, as it is called. At h7ew 
York city, August 12tli to 14th, 1853, the wet-thermo¬ 
meter stood at 80° to 84°; the air, at 90° to 94°. The 
mortality, from this joint effect, was very great—over two 
hundred persons losing their lives in the two days, in that 
city. 

From very careful observations, made by Lor in Blodget, 
in 1853, at Washington, it was found that the difference 
between the wet and dry thermometer was 18^° at 4 P. M., 
June 30th, and 16° at 2 P. M. on July 1st—the tempera¬ 
ture of the air being 98° on the first day, and 95° on the 
second; but such excesses are unusual. 

The following table has been compiled from Mr. 
Blod^et’s notice of the peculiarities of the Summer of 
1853: 

The dates are such as were selected to illustrate the ex¬ 
treme temperatures of the month, and the degrees repre¬ 
sent the differences between the wet and dry thermometer. 
The observations were made at 3 P. M.: 


Locality. 

Dates. 


Differences, 


June, 1853. 





Burlington, Vt. 

14th to 30th .... 

ranged from 

8° 

to 

17° 

Montreal. 

14th to 30th .... 

u 

6 

to 

17 

Poultney, Iowa.... 

10th to 30th .... 

u 

9 

to 

16 

Washington. 

20th to 30th .... 

u 

8.5 

to 

16 

Baltimore. 

13th to 30th .... 

a 

7.4 

to 20.2 

Savannah . 

13th to 30th .... 

a 

5.2 

to 17.3 

Austin, Texas .... 

10th to 30th .... 

u 

4 

to 

24 

Clarkesville, Term. 

4th to 30th .... 

u 

10.3 

to 20.5 


August. 





Bloomfield. N. J_ 

9th to 14th ... 

u 

5 

to 

15 

Austin, Texas .... 

6th to 1 2th_ 

li 

0 

to 

19 

Philadelphia. 

10th to 15th .... 

u 

8 

to 

14 

Jacksonville. Fla .. 

/ 

10th to 15th .... 

u 

6 

to 

8 









RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


65 


Observations by Lieut. Gillis, at Washington, give 
mean differences between wet and dry thermometers, from 
March, 1841, to June, 1842, as follows: 

Observations at 8 P. M. : 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. For. Dec. 
3°.08 4°.40 5°.37 7°.05 8°.03 8°.89 5°.29 5°.63 4°.61 4°.77 2°.03 

A mean of observations for twenty-five years at the 
Padcliffe Observatory, Oxford, England, gives a difference 
between the wet and dry thermometer equal to about two- 
thirds the difference, as observed by Lieutenant Gillis, at 
Washington. 

On the 12th day of August, 1853, in Austin, Texas, the 
air was perfectly saturated at a temperature of 76°, which 
was the dew-point, or point of the thermometer at which 
dew began to form. The dew-point varies according to 
the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere; it 
is usually a few degrees lower than the atmosphere of 
evaporation—never higher. 

From observations made at Girard College, by Prof. A. 
D. Baclie, in the years 1840 to 1845, we find, that for 
April, 1844, the dew-point ranged from 4° to 16° lower 
than the temperature of the air ; in May, from 4° to 14° 
lower; in June, from 6° to 20° lower; in July, from 4° to 
17°; in August, from 6° to 15° lower; and in Septem¬ 
ber, from 6° to 21° lower. The dew-point is, then, during 
the important months of vegetation, within about 20° of 
the temperature of the air. The temperature of the dew¬ 
point, as observed by Prof. Bache, was highest in August, 
1843, being 66°, and lowest in January, 1844, being 18° ; 
in July, 1844, it was 64°, and in February, 1845, it was 
25°. Its hourly changes during each day are quite marked, 
and follow, with some degree of regularity, the changes in 
the temperature of the air; their greatest departure from 
each other being at the hottest hour of the day, which is 
two or three hours after noon, and the least at the coldest 


66 


FAKM DEAIHAGE. 


hour which is four or five hours after midnight. The 
average temperature of the dew-point in April, May, and 
June, 1844, was, at midnight, 50^°, air, 57° ; five hours 
after midnight, dew-point, 49°, air 54° ; three hours after 
noon, dew-point, 54°, air, 63J°. The average temperature 
for July, August and September, was, at midnight, dew¬ 
point, 58-1°, air, 65°; five hours after midnight, dew-point, 
58°, air, 62°; three hours after noon, dew-point, 60|°, air, 
78°. The average temperature for the year was, at mid¬ 
night, dew-point, 42°, air, 48° ; five hours after midnight, 
dew-point, 41°, air, 46° ; three hours after noon, dew-point, 
442°, air, 59°. 

The relative humidity of the atmosphere, or the amount 
of vapor held in suspension in the air, in proportion to the 
amount which it might hold, was, in the year 1858, as 
given in the journal of the Franklin Institute, for 


Philadelphia. Somerset Co. 


April. 49 per cent. — 2 P. M. 

May. 59 “ 72 “ 

June. 55 u 63 u 

July. 50 11 61 “ 

August. 55 11 58 u 

September. 50 u 57 11 


The saturation often falls to 30 per cent,, but with great 
variability. Evaporation goes on most rapidly when the 
per centage of saturation is lowest ; and, as before ob¬ 
served, the cause of the excess of evaporation in this 
country over that of England is the excessive humidity of 
that climate and the dryness of this. It has also been said 
that there is greater need for drainage in the United States 
on this account; and, as the warmth induced by draining 
is somewhat, in its effect, a merchantable product, it may 
be well to consider it for a moment in that light. 

O 

Firstly: The drained land comes into condition for 








KAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


67 


working, a week or ten days earlier in the Spring than 
other lands. 

Secondly: The growth of the crops is quickened all 
through the Summer by an increase of several degrees in 
the temperature of the soil. 

Thirdly: The injurious effects of frost are kept off 
several days later in the Fall. 

Of the value of these conditions, the farmer, who has lost 
his crops for lack of a few more warm days, may make 
his own estimates. In Roxbury, Mr. J. P. Rand heats up 
a portion of his land, for the purpose of raising early 
plants for the market, by means of hot water carried by 
iron pipes under the surface of the ground. In this man¬ 
ner he heats an area equal to 100 feet by 12 feet, by burn¬ 
ing about one ton of coal a month. The increase of tempera¬ 
ture which, in this case, is caused by that amount of coal, 
can, in the absence of direct measurement, only be esti¬ 
mated ; but it, probably, will average about 30°, day and 
night, throughout the month. In an acre the area is 36.4 
times as great as that heated by one ton of coal; the cost 
being in direct proportion to the area, 36.4 tons of coal 
would be required to heat an acre ; which, at $6 per ton, 
would cost $217.40. To heat an acre through 10°, would 
cost, then, $72.47. It may be of interest to consider how 
much coal would be required to evaporate from an un¬ 
drained field that amount of water which might be car¬ 
ried off by underdrains, but which, without them, is evap¬ 
orated from the surface. It may be taken as an approx¬ 
imate estimate, that the evaporation from the surface 
of an undrained retentive field, is equal to two inches 
vertical depth of water for each of the months of May, 
June, July, and August; which is equal to fifty-four thou¬ 
sand three hundred and five gallons, or eight hundred and 
sixty-two hogsheads per acre for each month. If this quan¬ 
tity of water were evaporated by means of a coal fire, 


68 


FAEM DE AIN AGE. 


about 22§ tons of coal would be consumed, which, at $6 a 
ton, would cost $136. The cost of evaporating the amount 
of water which would pass off in one day from an acre 
would be about $4.53. It is probable that about half as 
much water would be evaporated from thorough-drained 
land, though, by some experiments, the proportion has 
been made greater—in which case the loss of heat result¬ 
ing from an excess of moisture evaporated from undrained 
retentive land, over that which would be evaporated from 
drained land, would be equal to that gained by 11^ tons 
of coal, which would cost $6S ; and this for each acre, in 
each of the three months. At whatever temperature a 
liquid vaporizes, it absorbs the same total quantity of 
heat. 

The latent heat of watery vapor at 212° is 972° ; that 
is, when water at 212° is converted into vapor at the same 
temperature, the amount of heat expended in the process 
is 972°. This heat becomes latent, or insensible to the 
thermometer. The heat rendered latent by converting 
ice into water is about 140°. There are 7.4805 gallons in 
a cubic foot of water which weighs 62.38 lbs.” 

We have seen that a sea of water, more than three feet 
deep over the whole face of the land, falls annually from 
the clouds, equal to 4,000 tons in weight to every acre. 
We would use enough of this water to dissolve the ele¬ 
ments of fertility in the soil, and fit them for the food of 
plants. We would retain it all in our fields, long enough 
to take from it its stores of fertilizing substances, brought 
from reeking marshes and steaming cities on cloud-wings 
to our farms. We would, after taking enough of its 
moisture to cool the parched earth, and to fit the soil for 
germination and vegetable growth, discharge the surplus, 
which must otherwise stagnate in the subsoil, by rapid 
drainage into the natural streams and rivers. 

Evaporation proceeds more rapidly from a surface of 


RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


69 


water, than from a surface of land, unless it be a saturated 
surface. It proceeds more rapidly in the sun than in the 
shade, and it proceeds again more rapidly in warm than 
in cold weather. It varies much with the culture of the 
field, whether in grass, or tillage, or fallow, and with its 
condition, as to being dry or wet, and with its formation, 
whether level or hilly. Yet, with all these variations, 
very great reliance may be placed upon the ascertained 
results of the observations already at our command. 

We have seen that evaporation from a water surface is, 
in general, greater than from land, and here we may 
observe one of those grand compensating designs of 
Providence which exist through all nature. 

If the same quantity of water fell upon the sea and the 
land, and the evaporation were the same from both, then 
all the rivers running into the sea would soon convey to 
it all the water, and the sea w T ould be full. But though 
nearly as much water falls on the sea as on the land, yet 
evaporation is much greater from the water than from 
land. 

About three feet of rain falls upon the water , while the 
evaporation from a water surface far exceeds that amount. 
In the neighborhood of Boston, evaporation from water 
surface is said to be 56 inches in the year, and in the State 
of Hew York, about 50 inches; while, in England, it is 
put by Mr. Dalton at 44.43 inches, and, by others, much 
lower. 

Again, about three feet of water annually falls upon 
the land , while the evaporation from the land is but little 
more than 20 inches. If this water fell upon a flat 
surface of soil, with an impervious subsoil of rock or 
clay, we should have some sixteen inches of water in the 
course of the year more than evaporates from the land. 
If a given field be dish-shaped, so as to retain it all, it 
must become a pond, and so remain, except in Summer, 


70 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


when greater evaporation from a water surface may 
reduce it to a swamp or marsh. 

•With 16 or 18 inches more water falling annually on 
all our cultivated fields than goes off by evaporation, is 
it not wise to inquire by what process of Nature or art 
this vast surplus shall escape ? 

Experiments have been made with a view to determine 
the proportion of evaporation and filtration, upon well- 
drained land, in different months. From an able article 
in the N. Y. Agricultural Society for 1854, by George 
Geddes, we copy the following statement of valuable 
observations upon these points. 

It will be observed that, in the different observations 
collected in this chapter, results are somewhat various. 
They have been brought together for comparison, and 
will be found sufficiently uniform for all practical pur¬ 
poses in the matter of drainage. 

“ The experiments upon evaporation and drainage, made on Mr. 
Dalton’s plan, were in vessels three feet deep, tilled with soil just in 
the condition to secure perfect freedom from excess of water, and the 
drainage was determined by the amount of water that passed out of 
the tube at the bottom. These experiments have been most perfectly 
made in England by Mr. John Dickinson. The following table exhibits 
the mean of eight years : 


Teak. 

October to March. 

April to September. 

Total of each year. 

Rain. 

Filtra¬ 

tion. 

Per cent 
filtered. 

Rain. 

Filtra¬ 

tion. 

Per cent 
filtered. 

Rain. 

Filtra¬ 

tion. 

Per cent 
filtered. 

1836.. 

18.80 

15.55 

82.7 

12.20 

2.10 

17.3 

31.00 

17.65 

56.9 

1837.. 

11.30 

6.85 

60.6 

9.80 

0.10 

1.0 

21.10 

6.95 

32.9 

1838.. 

12.32 

8.45 

68.8 

10.81 

0.12 

1.2 

23.13 

8.57 

37.0 

1839.. 

13.87 

12.31 

88.2 

17.41 

2.60 

15.0 

31.28 

14.91 

47.6 

1840.. 

11.76 

8.19 

69.6 

9.68 

0.00 

0.0 

21.44 

8.19 

38.2 

1841.. 

16.84 

14.19 

84.2 

15.26 

0.00 

0.0 

32.10 

14.19 

44.2 

1842.. 

14.28 

10.46 

73.2 

12.15 

1.30 

10.7 

26.43 

11.76 

44.4 

1843.. 

12.43 

7.11 

57.2 

14.04 

0.99 

7.1 

26.47 

8.10 

36.0 

Mean . 

13.95 

10.39 

74.5 

12.67 

0.90 

7.1 

26.61 

11.29 

42.4 















































RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


71 


C: A soil that holds no water for the use of plants below six inches, 
will suffer from drouth in ten days in June, July, or August. If the 
soil is in suitable condition to hold water to the depth of three feet, it 
would supply sufficient moisture for the whole months of June, July, 
and August. 

M. de la Hire has shown that, at Paris, a vessel, sixteen inches deep, 
filled with sand and loam, discharged water through the pipe at the 
bottom until the ‘herbs’ were somewhat grown, when the discharge 
ceased, and the rains were insufficient, and it was necessary to water 
them. The fall of water at Paris is stated, in this account, at twenty 
inches in the year, which is less than the average, and the experiment 
must have been made in a very dry season; but the important point 
proved by it is, that the plants, when grown up, draw largely from the 
ground, and thereby much increase the evaporation from a given surface 
of earth. The result of the experiment is entirely in accordance with 
what would have been expected by a person conversant with the laws 
of vegetation. 

u The mean of each month for the eight years is : 


Months. 

Rain. 

Filtration. 

Per cent 
filtered. 

January . 

Inches. 

1.84 

Inches 

1 .30 

70.7 

February. 

1.79 

1.54 

78.4 

March .. 

1.61 

1 .OS 

66.6 

April. 

1.45 

0.30 

21.0 

May. 

1.85 

0.11 

5.8 

June. 

2.21 

0.04 

1.7 

July. 

2.28 

0.04 

1.8 

August. 

2.42 

0.03 

1.4 

September. 

2.64 

0.37 

13.9 

October. 

2.82 

1.40 

49.5 

November. 

3.83 

3.26 

84.9 

December. 

1.64 

1.80 

110.0 





“ The filtration from April to September is very small—practically 
nothing; but during those months we have 12.67 inches of rain—that 
is, we have two inches a month for evaporation besides the quantity in 
the earth on the first day of April. From October to March we have 
10.39 inches filtered out of 13.95 inches, the whole fall. ‘Of this 
Winter portion of 10.39, we must allow at least six inches for floods 
running away at the time of the rain, and then we have only 4.3.9 
inches left for the supply of rivers and wells.’ (Breadmore, p. 34.) 



























72 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


“ It is calculated in England that the ordinary Summer run of 
streams does not exceed ten cubic feet per minute per square mile, and 
that the average for the whole year, due to springs and ordinary rains, 
is twenty feet per minute per square mile, exclusive of floods—and 
assuming no very wet or high mountain districts (Breadmore, p. 34)— 
which is equal to about four inches over the whole surface. If we add 
to this the six inches that are supposed to run off in freshets, we have 
ten inches discharged in the course of the year by the streams. The 
whole filtration was 11.29 inches— 10.39 in the Winter, and 90 in the 
Summer. The remainder, 1.29 inches, is supposed to be consumed by 
wells and excessive evaporation from marshes and pools, from which 
the discharge is obstructed, by animals, and in various other ways. 
These calculations were made from experiments running through eight 
years, in which the average fall of water was only 26.61 inches per 
annum. When the results derived from them are applied to our 
average fall of 35.28 inches, we have for the water that constitutes the 
Summer flow of our streams 13.25 cubic feet per minute per mile of 
the country drained, and for the average annual flow, exclusive of 
freshets, 26.50 cubic feet per mile per minute. That is to say, of the 
35.28 inches of w r ater that fall in the course of the year, 5.30 run 
away in the streams as the average annual flow, 7.95 run away in the 
freshets, and 20.47 evaporate from the earth’s surface, leaving 1.56 for 
consumption in various ways. In the whole year the drainage is 
nearly equal to one cubic foot per second per square mile (.976), no 
allowance being made for the 1.56 inches which is lost as before stated. 
These calculations are based upon English experiments. Mr. McAlpine, 
late State engineer and surveyor, in making his calculations for sup¬ 
plying the city of Albany with water (page 22 of his Report to the 
Water Commissioners), takes 45 per cent of the fall as available for 
the use of the city. Mr. Henry Tracy, in his Report to the Canal 
Board of 1849 (page 17), gives the results of the investigations in the 
valleys of Madison Brook, in Madison County, and of Long Pond, near 
Boston, Mass., as follows: 


Yeab. 

Name of valley. 

Fall of rain 
and snow 
in valley. 

Water ran off 
in 

inches. 

Evaporation 
from surface 
of ground. 

Ratio 

of 

drainage. 

1835.... 

Madison Brook. 

35.26 

15.83 

19.43 

0.449 

1837.... 

Long Pond. 

26.65 

11.70 

14.95 

0.439 

1838.... 

Do. 

38.11 

16.62 

21.49 

0.436 

Mean. .. 





0.441 































RAIN AND EVAPORATION. 


73 


“ JVtadison Brook drains 6,000 acres, and Long Pond 11,400 acres. 
Mr. Tracy makes the following comment on this table: c It appears 
that the evaporation from the surface of the ground in the valley of 
Long Pond was about 44 per cent more in 1838 than it was in 1837, 
while the ratio of the drainage differed less than one per cent the same 
years.’ 

" Dr. Hale states the evaporation from water-surface at Boston to be 
56 inches in a year. (Senate Doc., No. 70, for 1853.) 

u The following table contains the results arrived at by Mr. Coffin, 
at Ogdensburgh, and Mr. Conkey. at Syracuse, in regard to the eva¬ 
poration from water-surface: 


Months. 

Coffin, at Ogdensburgh, in 1838. 

Conkey, at Syracuse, in 1S52. 

Rain. 

Evaporation. 

Rain. 

Evaporation. 

January. 

2.36 

1.652 

3.673 

0.665 

February. 

0.97 

0.817 

1.307 

1.489 

March. 

1.18 

2.067 

3.234 

2.239 

April. 

0.40 

1.625 

3.524 

3.421 

May. 

4.81 

7.100 

4.491 

7.309 

June. 

3.57 

6.745 

3.773 

7.600 

July_ 

1.88 

7.788 

2.887 

9.079 

August. 

2.55 

5.415 

2.724 

6.854 

September .... 

1.01 

7.400 

2.774 

5.334 

October 

2.73 

3.948 

4.620 

3.022 

November .... 

2.07 

3.659 

4.354 

1.325 

December. 

1.08 

1.146 

4.112 

1 .863 

Total . 

24.61 

49.362 

41;473 

50.200 


11 The annual fall of water in England, is stated, by Mr. Dalton, to be 
32 inches. In this State, it is 35.28 inches. The evaporation from 
water-surface in England, is put, by Mr. Dalton, at 44.43 inches. The 
fall is less, and the evaporation is less, in England than here; and the 
fall, in each case, bears the same proportion to the evaporation, very 
nearly; and it appears that the experiments made on the two sides of 
the ocean, result in giving very nearly the same per centage of drain¬ 
age. In England, it is 42.4 per cent.; in this State, it is 44.1. In 
England, the experiments were made on a limited scale compared with 
ours; but the results agree so well, that great confidence may safely be 
placed in them.” 

In reviewing the whole subject of rain, and of evapor- 
4 




































74 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


ation and filtration, we seem to have evidence to justify 
the opinion, that with considerable more rain in this 
country than in England, and with a greater evaporation, 
because of a clearer sky and greater heat, we have a 
larger quantity of surplus water to be disposed of by 
drainage. 

The occasion for thorough-drainage, however, is greater 
in the Northern part of the United States than in England, 
upon land of the same character ; because, as we have 
already seen, rain falls far more regularly there than here, 
and never in such quantities in a single day ; and because 
there the land is open to be worked by the plough nearly 
every day in the year, while here for several months our 
fields are locked up in frost, and our labor for the Spring 
crowded into a few days. There, the water which falls in 
Winter passes into the soil, and is drained off as it falls; 
while here, the snow accumulates to a great depth, and in 
thawing floods the land at once. 

Both here and in England, much of the land requires 
no under-draining, as it has already a subsoil porous 
enough to allow free passage for all the surplus water; 
and it is no small part of the utility of understanding the 
principles of drainage, that it will enable farmers to dis¬ 
criminate—at a time when draining is somewhat of a 
fashionable operation with amateurs—between land that 
does and land that does not require so expensive an 
operation. 


DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS. 


75 


CHAPTER IV. 

DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS-WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE. 

What is High Land ?—Accidents to Crops from Water.—Do Lands need 
Drainage in America ?—Springs.—Theory of Moisture, with Illustrations. 
—Water of Pressure.—Legal Rights as to Draining our Neighbor’s Wells 
and Land.—What Lands require Drainage?—Horace Greeley’s Opinion.— 
Drainage more Necessary in America than in England ; Indications of too 
much Moisture.—Will Drainage Pay? 

By “ high land,” is meant land, the surface of whicli is 
not overflowed, as distinguished from swamps, marshes, 
and the like low lands. How great a proportion of such 
lands would be benefitted by draining, it is impossible to 
estimate. 

The Committee on Draining, in their Report to the State 
Agricultural Society of Hew York, in 1848, assert that, 
“ There is not one farm out of every seventy-five in this 
State, but needs draining—yes, much draining—to bring 
it into high cultivation. Hay, we may venture to say, 
that every wheat-field would produce a larger and finer 
crop if properly drained.” The committee further say : 
“ It wfill be conceded, that no farmer ever raised a good 
crop of grain on wet ground, or on a field where pools of 
water become masses of ice in the Winter. In such 
cases, the grain plants are generally frozen out and perish ; 
or, if any survive, they never arrive at maturity, nor pro¬ 
duce a well-developed seed. In fact, every observing far¬ 
mer knows that stagnant water, whether on the surface of 
his soil, or within reach of the roots of his plants, always 
does them injury.” 


76 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


The late Mr. Delafield, one of the most distinguished 
agriculturists of New ork, said in a public address: 

« We all well know that wheat and other grains, as well as grasses, 
are never fully developed, and never produce good seed, when the roots 
are soaked in moisture. No man ever raised good wheat from a wet or 
moist subsoil. Now, the farms of this country, though at times during 
the Summer they appear dry, and crack open on the surface, are not, in 
fact, dry farms, for reasons already named. On the contrary, for nine 
months out of twelve, they are moist or wet; and we need no better 
evidence of the fact, than the annual freezing out of the plants, and 
consequent poverty of many crops.' ; 

If we listen to the answers of farmers, when asked as to 
the success of their labors, w T e shall be surprised, perhaps, 
to observe how much of their want of success is attributed 
to accidents , and how uniformly these accidents result 
from causes which thorough draining would remove. The 
wheat-crop of one would have been abundant, had it not 
been badly frozen out in the Fall ; while another has 
lost nearly the wdiole of his, by a season too wet for his 
land. A farmer at the West has planted his corn early, 
and late rains have rotted the seed in the ground ; while 
one at the East has been compelled, by the same rains, to 
wait so long before planting, that the season has been too 
short. Another has worked his clayey farm so wet, be¬ 
cause he had not time to w r ait for it to dry, that it could not 
be properly tilled. And so their crops have wdiolly or par¬ 
tially failed, and all because of too much cold water in the 
soil. It would seem, by the remarks of those' who till the 
earth, as if there were never a season just right—as if Provi¬ 
dence had bidden us labor for bread, and yet sent down the 
rains of heaven so plentifully as always to blight our har¬ 
vests. It is rare that w r e do not have a most remarkable 
season, with respect to moisture, especially. Our pota¬ 
toes are rotted by the Summer showers, or cut oft* by a 
Summer drought; and when, as in the season of 1856, in 


DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS. 


77 


New England, they are neither seriously diseased nor 
dried up, we find at harvest-time that the promise has be¬ 
lied the fulfillment; that, after all the fine show above 
ground, the season has been too wet, and the crop is light. 
We frequently hear complaint that the season was too cold 
for Indian corn, and that the ears did not fill; or that a 
sharp drought, following a wet Spring, has cut short the 
crop. We hear no man say, that he lacked skill to culti¬ 
vate his crop. Seldom does a farmer attribute his failure 
to the poverty of his soil. He has planted and cultivated 
in such a way, that, in a favorable season , he would have 
reaped a fair reward for his toil; but the season has been 
too wet or too dry; and, with full faith that farming will 
pay in the long run, he resolves to plant the same land in 
the same manner, hoping in future for better luck. 

Too much cold water is at the bottom of most of these 
complaints of unpropitious seasons, as well as of most of 
our soils ; and it is in our power to remove the cause of 
these complaints and of our want of success. 

“ The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 

But in ourselves.” 

We must underdrain all the land we cultivate, that 
Nature has not already underdrained, and we shall cease 
complaints of the seasons. The advice of Cromwell to his 
soldiers : “ Trust God, and keep your powder dry,” affords 
a good lesson of faith and works to the farmer. We shall 
seldom have a season, upon properly drained land, that is 
too wet, or too cold, or even too dry; for thorough drain¬ 
ing is almost as sure a remedy for a drought, as for a 
flood. 

Do lands need underdraining in America f It is a 
common error to suppose that, because the sun shines 
more brightly upon this country than upon England, and 
because almost every Summer brings such a drought here 
as is unknown there, her system of thorough drainage can 


78 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


have no place in agriculture on this side of the Atlantic. 
It is true that we have a clearer sky and a drier climate 
than are experienced in England; hut it is also true that, 
although we have a far less number of showers and of 
rainy days, we have a greater quantity of rain in the 
year. 

The necessity of drainage, however, does not depend so 
much upon the quantity of water which falls or flows upon 
land, nor upon the power of the sun to carry it off by 
evaporation, as upon the character of the subsoil. The 
vast quantity of water which Nature pours upon every 
acre of soil annually, were it all to be removed by evapor¬ 
ation alone, would render the whole country barren ; but 
Nature herself has kindly done the work of draining upon 
a large proportion of our land, so that only a healthful 
proportion of the water which falls on the earth, passes off 
at the surface by the influence of the sun. 

If the subsoil is of sand or gravel, or of other porous 
earth, that portion of the water not evaporated, passes off 
below by natural drainage. If the subsoil be of clay, rock, 
or other impervious substances, the downward course of 
the water is checked, and it remains stagnant, or bursts 
out upon the surface in the form of springs. 

As the primary object of drainage is to remove surplus 
water, it may be well to consider with some care 

THE SOURCES OF MOISTURE. 

Springs .—These are, as has been suggested, merely the 
water of rain and snow, impeded in its downward percola¬ 
tion, and collected and poured forth in a perennial flow 
at a lower level. 

The water which falls in the form of rain and snow upon 
the soil of the whole territory of the United States, east 
of the Rocky Mountains, each year, is sufficient to cover 
it to the depth of more than 3 feet. It comes upon the 


DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS. 


79 


earth, not daily in gentle dews to water the plants, but 
at long, unequal intervals, often in storms, tempests, and 
showers, pouring out, sometimes, in a single day, more 
than usually falls in a whole month. 

What becomes of all this moisture, is an inquiry espe¬ 
cially interesting to the agriculturist, upon whose fruitful 
fields this flood of water annually descends, and w r hose 
labor in seed-time would be destroyed by a single Summer 
shower, were not Nature more thoughtful than he, of his 
welfare. Of the water which thus falls upon cultivated 
fields, a part runs away into the streams, either upon the 
surface, or by percolation through the soil; a part is taken 
up into the air by evaporation, while a very small pro¬ 
portion enters into the constitution of vegetation. The 
proportion which passes off by percolation varies accord¬ 
ing to the nature of the soil in the locality where it falls. 

Usually, we find the crust of the earth in our cultivated 
fields, in strata, or layers: first, a surface-soil of a few 
inches of a loamy nature, in which clay or sand pre¬ 
dominates ; and then, it may be, a layer of sand or gravel, 
freely admitting the passage of water; and, perhaps, next, 
and within two or three feet of the surface, a stratum of 
clay, or of sand or gravel cemented with some oxyd of 
iron, through which water passes very slowly, or not at all. 
These strata are sometimes regular, extending at an equal 
depth over large tracts, and having a uniform dip, or in¬ 
clination. Oftener, however, in hilly regions especially, 
they are quite irregular—the impervious stratum fre¬ 
quently having depressions of greater or less extent, and 
holding water, like a bowl. Not unfrequently, as we cut 
a ditch upon a declivity, we find that the dip of the strata 
below has no correspondence with the visible surface of 
the field, but that the different strata lie nearly level, or 
are much broken, while the surface has a regular inclina¬ 
tion. 


80 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Underlying all soils, at greater or less depth, is found 
some bed of rock, or clay, impervious to water, usually at 
but few feet below the surface—the descending water 
meeting with obstacles to its regular descent. The ten¬ 
dency of the rain-water which falls upon the earth, is 
to sink directly downward by gravitation. Turned aside, 
however, by the many obstacles referred to, it often 
passes obliquely, or almost horizontally, through the soil. 
The drop which falls upon the hill-top sinks, perhaps, a few 
inches, meets with a bed of clay, glides along upon it for 
many days, and is at last borne out to be drunk up by the 
sun on some far-off slope ; another, falling upon the sand- 
plain, sinks at once to the “ water-line,” or line of level 
water, which rests on clay beneath, and, slowly creeping 
along, helps to form a swamp or bog in the valley. 

Sometimes, the rain which falls upon the high land is 
collected together by fissures in the rocks, or by seams or 
ruptures in the impervious strata below the surface, and 
finds vent in a gushing spring on the liill-side. 

We feel confident that no better illustration of the 
theory of springs, as connected with our subject, can be 
found, than that of Mr. Girdwood, in the Cyclopedia of 
Agriculture—a work from which we quote the more 
liberally, because it is very expensive and rare in America: 

“When rain falls on a tract of country, part'of it flows over the sur¬ 
face, and makes its escape by the numerous natural and artificial 
courses which may exist, while another portion is absorbed by the soil 
and the porous strata which lie under it. 

11 Let the following diagram represent such a tract of country, and let 


D 



the dark portions represent clay or other impervious strata, while the 








DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS. 


81 


lighter portions represent layers of gravel, sand, or chalk, permitting a 
free passage to water. 

u When rain falls in such a district, after sinking through the surface- 
layer (represented in the diagram by a narrow band), it reaches the 
stratified layers beneath. Through these it still further sinks, if they 
are porous, until it reaches some impervious stratum, which arrests its 
directly-downward course, and compels it to find its way along its upper 
surface. Thus, the rain which falls on the space represented between B 
and D, is compelled, by the impervious strata, to flow towards C. Here 
it is q4 once absorbed, but is again immediately arrested by the imper¬ 
vious layer E: it is, therefore, compelled to pass through the porous 
stratum C, along the surface of E to A, where it pours forth in a foun¬ 
tain, or forms a morass or swamp, proportionate in size or extent to the 
tract of country between B and D, or the quantity of rain which falls 
upon it. In such a case as is here represented, it will be obvious that 
the spring may often be at a great distance from the district from which 
it derives its supplies; and this accounts for the fact, that drainage- 
works on a large scale sometimes materially lessen the supply of water 
at places remote from the scene of operations. 

li In the instance given above, the water forming the spring is repre¬ 
sented as gaining access to the porous stratum, at a point where it crops 
out from beneath an impervious one, and as passing along to its point 
of discharge at a considerable depth, and under several layers of various 
characters. Sometimes, in an undulating country, large tracts may 
rest immediately upon some highly-porous stratum—as from B to C, in 
the following diagram—rendering the necessity for draining less ap¬ 
parent ; while the country from A to B, and from C to D, may be full of 



springs and marshes—arising, partly, from the rain itself, which falls in 
these latter districts, being unable to find a way of escape, and partly 

from the natural drainage of the more porous soils adjoining being dis- 

\ 

charged upon it. 

<: A^ain : the rocks lying under the surface are sometimes so full of 
fissures, that, although they themselves are impervious to water, yet, 
4* 






82 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


so completely do these fissures carry off rain, that, in some parts of the 
county of Durham, they render the sinking of wells useless, and make it 
necessary for the farmers to drive their cattle many miles for water. It 
sometimes happens that these fissures, or cracks, penetrate to enormous 
depths, and are of great width, and filled with sand or clay. These are 
termed faults by miners; and some, which we lately examined, at dis¬ 
tances of from three to four hundred yards from the surface, were from 
five to fifteen yards in width. These faults, when of clay, are generally 
the cause of springs appearing at the surface: they arrest the progress 
of the water in some of the porous strata, and compel it to find a*n exit, 
by passing to the surface between the clay and the faces of the ruptured 
strata. When the fault is of sand or gravel, the opposite effect takes 
place, if it communicates with any porous stratum; and water, which 
may have been flowing over the surface, on reaching it, is at once ab¬ 
sorbed. In the following 



diagram, let us suppose that B represents such a clay-fault as has been 
described, and that A represents a sandy one, and that C and D repre¬ 
sent porous strata charged with water. On the water reaching the fault 
at B. it will be compelled to find its way to the surface—there forming 
a spring, and rendering the retentive soil, from B to A, wet; but, as 
soon os it reaches the sandy-fault at A, it is immediately absorbed, and 
again reaches the porous strata, along which it had traveled before 
being forced to the surface at B. It will be observed, that the strata at 
the points of dislocation are not represented as in a line with the 
portions from which they have been dissevered. This is termed the up¬ 
throw of the fault, as at B; and the downthrow, as at A. For the sake 
of the illustration, the displacement is here shown as very slight; but, 
in some cases, these elevations and depressions of the strata extend to 
many hundreds of feet—as, for instance, at the mines of the British 
Iron Company, at Cefn-Mawre, in North Wales, where the downthrow 
of the fault is 360 feet. 

u Sometimes the strata are disposed in the form of a basin. In this 
case, the water percolating through the more elevated ground—near 






DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS. 


83 


what may be called the rim—collects in the lower parts of the strata 
towards the centre, there forcing its way to the surface, if the upper 
impervious beds be thin; or, if otherwise, remaining a concealed reser¬ 
voir, ready to yield its supplies to the shaft or boring-rod of the well- 
sinker, and sometimes forming a living fountain capable of rising many 
feet above the surface. It is in this way that what are called Artesian 
wells are formed. The following diagram represents such a disposition 
of the strata as has just been referred to. The rain which falls on the 


B 



tracts of country at A and B, gradually percolates towards the centre of 
the basin, where it may be made to give rise to an Artesian well, as at 
C, by boring through the superincumbent mass of clay ; or it may force 
itself to the surface through the thinner part of the layer of clay, as at 
D—there forming a spring, or swamp. 

u Again : the higher parts of hilly ground are sometimes composed of 
very porous and absorbent strata, while the lower portions are more 
impervious—the soil and subsoil being of a very stiff and retentive 
description. In this case, the water collected by the porous layers is 
prevented from finding a ready exit, when it reaches the impervious 
layers, by the stiff surface-soil. The water is by this means dammed 
up in some measure, and acquires a considerable degree of pressure: 
and, forcing itself to the day at various places, it forms those extensive 
u weeping”-banks which have such an injurious effect upon many of 
our mountain-pastures. This was the form of spring, or swamp, to the 
removal of which Elkington principally turned his attention; and the 
following diagram, taken from a description of his system of draining, 
will explain the stratification and springs referred to, more clearly. 



'forbiisGiioiincL 


■ - 'k-f 

iii nriOf Ssu: (/con(aininy, S. 




















84 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


“ In some districts, where clay forms the staple of the soil, a bed of 
sand or gravel, completely saturated with water, occurs at the depth of 
a few feet from the surface, following all the undulations of the 
country, and maintaining its position, in relation to the surface, over con¬ 
siderable tracts, here and there pouring forth its waters in a spring, or 
denoting its proximity, by the subaquatic nature ot the herbage. Such a 
configuration is represented in the following diagram, where A repre¬ 
sents the surface-soil * B, the impervious subsoil of clay ; C, the bed of 
sandy-clay or gravel; and D, the lower bed of clay, resting upon the 
rocky strata beneath. 



Fig. 10. 


“Springs sometimes communicate with lakes or pools, at higher levels. 
In such cases, the quantity of water discharged is generally so great, as 
to form at once a brook or stream of some magnitude. These, there¬ 
fore, hardly come under the ordinary cognizance of the land-drainer, 
and are, therefore, here merely referred to." 

THE WATER OF •‘PRESSURE. 

Water that issues from the land, either constantly, 
periodically, or even intermittently, may, perhaps, be 
properly termed a spring. But there is often much water 
in the soil which did not fall in rain upon that particular 
field, and which does not issue from it in any defined 
stream, but which is slowly passing through it by perco¬ 
lation from a higher source, to ooze out into some stream, 
or to pass off by evaporation; or, perhaps, farther on, to 
tall into crevices in the soil, and eventually form springs. 
As we find it in our field, it is neither rain-water, which 
has there fallen, nor spring-water, in any sense. It has 
been appropriately termed the water of pressure , to dis- 
distinguisli it from both rain and spring-water; and the 
recognition of this term will certainly be found conve- 










DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS. 


85 


nient to all who are engaged in the discussion of 
drainage. 

The distinction is important in a legal point of view, as 
relating to the right of the land-owner to divert the 
sources of supply to mill-streams, or to adjacent lower 
lands. It often happens that an owner of land on a 
slope may desire to drain his field, while the adjacent 
owner below, may not only refuse to join in the drainage, 
but may 'believe that he derives an advantage from the 
surface-washing or the percolation from his higher 
neighbor. He may believe that, by deep drainage 
above, his land will be dried up and rendered worthless ; 
or, he may desire to collect the water which thus perco¬ 
lates, into his land, and use it for irrigation, or for a 
water-ram, or for the supply of his barn-yard. May the 
upper owner legally proceed with the drainage of his own 
land, if he thus interfere with the interests of the man 
below ? 

Again : wherever drains have been opened, we already 
hear complaints of their effects upon wells. In our good 
town of Exeter, there seems to be a general impression 
on one street, that the drainage of a swamp, formerly 
owmed by the author, has drawn down the wells on that 
street, situated many rods distant from the drains. Those 
wells are upon a sandy plain, with underlying clay, and 
the drains are cut down upon the clay, and into it, and 
may possibly draw off the w T ater a foot or two lower 
through the whole village—if we can regard the water 
line running through it as the surface of a pond, and the 
swamp as a dam across its outlet. 

The rights of land-owners, as to running water over 
their premises, have been fruitful of litigation, hut are 
now well defined. In general, in the language of Judge 
Story, 

“ Every proprietor upon each bank of a river, is entitled to the land 


86 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


covered with water in front of his bank to the middle thread of the 
stream, &c. In virtue of this ownership, he has a right to the use of 
the water flowing over it in its natural current, without diminution or 
obstruction. The consequence of this principle is, that no proprietor 
has a right to use the water to the prejudice of another. It is wholly 
immaterial whether the party be a proprietor above or below, in the 
course of the river, the right being common to all the proprietors on 
the river. No one has a right to diminish the quantity which will, 
according to the natural current, flow to the proprietor below, or to 
throw it back upon a proprietor above.” 

Chief Justice Richardson, of New Hampshire, thus 
briefly states the same position : 

“ In general, every man has a right to the use of the water flowing 
in a stream through his land, and if any one divert the water from its 
natural channel, or throw it back, so as to deprive him of the use of it, 
the law will give him redress. But one man may acquire, by grant, a 
right to throw the water back upon the land of another, and long 
usage may be evidence of such a grant. It is, however, well settled 
that a man acquires no such right by merely being the first to make 
use of the water.” 

We are not aware that it lias ever been held by any 
court of law, or even asserted, that a land-owmer may not 
intercept the percolating water in his soil for any pur¬ 
pose and at his pleasure ; nor have we in mind any case 
in which the draining out of water from a well, by drain¬ 
age for agricultural purposes, has subjected the owner of 
the land to compensation. 

It is believed that a land-owner has the right to follow 
the rules of good husbandry in the drainage of his land, 
so far as the water of pressure is concerned, without 
responsibility for remote consequences to adjacent owners, 
to the owners of distant wells or springs that may be 
affected, or to mill-owners. 

In considering the effect of drainage on streams and 
rivers, it appears that the results of such operations, so 
far as they can be appreciated, are, to lessen the value of 
water powers, by increasing the flow of water in times of 


WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE ? 


87 


freshets, and lessening it in times of drought. It is sup¬ 
posed in this country, that clearing the land of timber has 
sensibly affected the value of “ mill privileges,” by in¬ 
creasing evaporation, and diminishing the streams. No 
mill-owner has been hardy enough to contend that a land- 
owner may not legally cut down his own timber, whatever 
the effect on the streams. So, we trust, no court will ever 
be found, which will restrict the land-owner in the highest 
culture of his soil, because his drainage may affect the 
capacity of a mill-stream to turn the water-wheels. 

To return from our digression. It is necessary, in order 
to a correct apprehension of the work which our drains 
have to perform, to form a correct opinion as to how 
much of the surplus moisture in our held is due to each of 
the three causes to which we have referred—to wit, rain¬ 
water, which falls upon it; springs, which burst up from 
below ; and water of pressure, stagnant in, or slowly per¬ 
colating through it. The rain-tables will give us informa¬ 
tion as to the first ; but as to the others, we must form 
our opinion from the structure of the earth around us, and 
observation upon the field itself, by its natural phenomena 
and by opening test-holes and experimental ditches. Hav¬ 
ing gained accurate knowledge of the sources of mois¬ 
ture, we may then be able to form a correct opinion whe¬ 
ther our land requires drainage, and of the aid which 
Nature requires to carry off the surplus water. 

WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE ? 

The more one studies the subject of drainage, the less 
inclined will he be to deal in general statements. “ Do 
you think it is profitable to underdrain land ?” is a ques¬ 
tion a thousand times asked, and yet is a question 
that admits of no direct general answer. Is it profitable 
to fence land ? is it profitable to plow land? are questions 
of much the same character. The answers to them all de- 


88 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


pend upon circumstances. There is land that may be 
profitably drained, and fenced, and plowed, and there is a 
great deal that had better be let alone. Whether drain¬ 
ing is profitable or not, depends on the value and character 
of the land in question, as well as on its condition as to 
water. Where £ood land is worth one hundred dollars an 
acre, it might be profitably drained ; when, if the same 
land were worth but the Government price of $1.25 an 
acre, it might be better to make a new purchase in the 
neighborhood, than to expend ten times its value on a 
tract that cannot be worth the cost of the operation. 
Drainage is an expensive operation, requiring much labor 
and capital, and not to be thought of in a pioneer settle¬ 
ment by individual emigrants. It comes after clearing, 
after the building of log-houses and mills, and school-houses, 
and churches, and roads, when capital and labor are abun¬ 
dant, and when the good lands, nature-drained, have been 
all taken up. 

And, again, whether drainage is profitable, depends not 
only on the value, but on the character of the soil as to 
productiveness when drained. There is much land that 
would be improved by drainage, that cannot be profitably 
drained. It would improve almost any land in Hew Eng¬ 
land to apply to it a hundred loads of stable manure to 
the acre ; but whether such application would be profit¬ 
able, must depend upon the returns to be derived from 
it. Horace Greeley, who has his perceptions of common 
affairs, and especially of all that relates to progress, wide 
awake, said, in an address at Peekskill, H. Y. : 

“ My deliberate judgment is, that all lands which are worth plow¬ 
ing, which is not the case with all lands that are plowed, would be im¬ 
proved by draining ; but I know that our farmers are neither able nor 
ready to drain to that extent, nor do I insist that it would pay while 
land is so cheap, and labor and tile so dear as at present. Ultimately, 
I believe, we shall tile-drain nearly all our level, or moderately sloping 
lands, that are worth cultivation.” 


WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE ? 


89 


Whether land would be improved by drainage, is one 
question, and whether the operation will pay, is quite ano¬ 
ther. The question whether it will pay, depends on the 
value of the land before drainage, the cost of the opera¬ 
tion, and the value of the land when completed. And 
the cost of the operation includes always, not only the 
money and labor expended in it, but also the loss to other 
land of the owner, by diverting from it the capital which 
would otherwise be applied to it. Where labor and capi¬ 
tal are limited so closely as they are in all our new States, 
it is a question not only how can they be profitably ap¬ 
plied, but how can they be most profitably applied. A 
proprietor, who has money to loan at six per cent, interest, 
may well invest it in draining his land ; when a working 
man, who is paying twelve per cent, interest for all the 
capital he employs, might ruin himself by making the 
same improvement. 

i 

DO ALL LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE? 

Our opinion is, that a great deal of land does not in 
any sense require drainage, and we should differ with Mr. 
Greeley, in the opinion that all lands worth ploughing, 
would be improved by drainage. Nature has herself thor¬ 
oughly drained a large proportion of the soil. There is a 
great deal of finely-cultivated land in England, renting 
at from five to ten dollars per acre, that is thought there 
to require no drainage. 

In a published table of estimates by Mr. Denton, made 
in 1855, it is supposed that Great Britain, including Eng¬ 
land, Scotland, and Wales, contain 43,958,000 acres of 
land, cultivated and capable of cultivation; of which he 
sets down as “ wet land,” or land requiring drainage, 
22,890,004 acres, or about one half the whole quantity. 
His estimate is, that only about 1,365,000 acres had then 
been permanently drained, and that it would cost about 


90 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


107 millions of pounds to complete the operation, esti¬ 
mating the cost at about twenty shillings, or live dollars 
per acre. 

These estimates are valuable in various views of our 
subject. They answer with some definiteness the question 
so often asked, whether all lands require drainage, and 
they tend to correct the impression, which is prevalent in 
this country, that there is something in the climate of 
Great Britain that makes drainage there essential to good 
cultivation on any land. The fact is not so. There, as in 
America, it depends upon the condition and character 
of the soil, more than upon the quantity of rain, or any 
condition of climate, whether drainage is required or not. 
Generally, it will be found on investigation, that so far 
as climate, including of course the quantity and regularity 
of the rain-fall, is concerned, drainage is more necessary 
in America than in Great Britain—the quantity of rain 
being in general greater in America, and far less regular 
in its fall. This subject, however, will receive a more 
careful consideration in another place. 

If in America, as in Great Britain, one half the cul¬ 
tivable land require drainage, or even if but a tenth of 
that half require it, the subject is of vast importance, and 
it is no less important for us to apprehend clearly what 
part of our land does not require this expenditure, than 
to learn how to treat properly that which does require it. 

To resume the inquiry, what lands require drainage ? it 
may be answered— 

ALL LANDS OVERFLOWED IN SUMMER REQUIRE DRAINAGE. 

Lands overflowed by the regular tides of the ocean 
require drainage, whether they lie upon the sea-shore, or 
upon rivers or bays. But this drainage involves embank¬ 
ments, and a peculiar mode of procedure, of which it is 
not now proposed to treat. 


WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE ? 91 

Again, all lands overflowed by Summer freshets, as 
upon rivers and smaller streams, require drainage. These, 
too, usually require embankments, and excavations of 
channels or outlets, not within the usual scope of what is 
termed thorough drainage. For a further answer to the 
question—what lands require drainage ? the reader is re¬ 
ferred to the chapters which treat of the effect of drainage 
upon the soil. 

SWAMPS AND BOGS REQUIRE DRAINAGE. 

FTo argument is necessary to convince rational men that 
the very extensive tracts of land, which are usually known 
as swamps and bogs, must, in some way, be relieved of 
their surplus water, before they can be rendered fit for 
cultivation. The treatment of this class of wet lands is 
so different from that applied to what we term upland, 
that it will be found more convenient to pass the subject 
by with this allusion, at present, and consider it more 
systematically under a separate head. 

ALL HIGH LANDS THAT CONTAIN TOO MUCH WATER AT ANY 

SEASON, REQUIRE DRAINAGE. 

Draining has been defined, “ The art of rendering land 
not only so free of moisture as that no superfluous water 
shall remain in it, but that no water shall remain in it so 
long as to injure, or even retard the healthy growth of 
plants required for the use of man and beast.” 

Some plants grow in water. Some even spring from 
the bottom of ponds, and have no other life than such a 
position affords. But most plants, useful to man, are 
drowned by being overflowed even for a short time, and 
are injured by any stagnant water about their roots. Why 
this is so, it is not easy to explain. Most of our know¬ 
ledge on these points, is derived from observation. We 
know that fishes live in water, and if we would propagate 


92 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


them, we prepare ponds and streams for the purpose. Our 
domestic animals live on land, and we do not put them 
into fish-ponds to pasture. There are useful plants which 
thrive best in water. Such is the cranberry, notwithstand¬ 
ing all that has been said of its cultivation on upland. 
And there are domestic fowls, such as ducks and geese, 
that require pools of water; but w r e do not hence infer 
that our hens and chickens would be better for daily im¬ 
mersion. All lands, then, require drainage, that contain 
too much water, at any season for the intended croj)s. 

This will be found to be an important element in our 
rule. Land may require drainage for Indian corn, that 
may not require it for grass. Most of the cultivated 
grasses are improved in quality, and not lessened in quan¬ 
tity, by the removal of stagnant water in Summer; but 
there are reasons for drainage for hoed crops, which do 
not apply to our mowing fields. In Hew England, w r e 
have for a few weeks a perfect race with Nature, to get 
our seeds into the ground before it is too late. Drained 
land may be plowed and planted several weeks earlier 
than land undrained, and this additional time for prepara¬ 
tion is of great value to the farmer. Much of this same 
land wojild be, by the first of June, by the time the 
ordinary planting season is past, sufficiently drained by 
Nature, and a grass crop upon it would be, perhaps, not 
at all benefited by thorough-drainage; so that it is often 
an important consideration with reference to this opera¬ 
tion, whether a given portion of our farm may not be most 
profitably kept in permanent grass, and maintained in fer¬ 
tility by top-dressing, or by occasional plowing and re¬ 
seeding in Autumn. It is certainly convenient to have 
all our fields adapted to our usual rotation, and it is for 
each man to balance for himself this convenience against 
the cost of drainage in each particular case. 

What particular crops are most injured by stagnant 


WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE ? 


93 


water in the soil, or by the too tardy percolation of rain¬ 
water, may be determined by observation. How stagnant 
water injures plants, is not, as has been suggested, easily 
understood in all its relations. It doubtless retards the 
decomposition of the substances which supply their nutri¬ 
ment, and it reduces the temperature of the soil. It has 
been suggested, that it prevents or checks perspiration and 
introsusception, and it excludes the air which is essen¬ 
tial to the vegetation of most plants. Whatever the 
theory, the fact is acknowledged, that stagnant water in 
as well as on the soil, impedes the growth of all our valu¬ 
able crops, and that drainage soon cures the evil, by re¬ 
moving the effect with its cause. And the remedy seems 
to be almost instantaneous; for, on most upland, it is found 
that by the removal of stagnant water, the soil is in a 
single season rendered fit for the growth of cultivated 
crops. In low meadows, composed of peat and swamp 
mud, in many cases, exposure to the air for a year or two 
after drainage, is often found to enhance the fertility of 
the soil, which contains, frecpiently, acids which need cor¬ 
rection. 

INDICATIONS OF TOO MUCH MOISTURE. 

It has already been suggested, that motives of con¬ 
venience mav induce us to drain our lands—that we mav 

«/ V 

have a longer season in which to work them ; and that 
there may be cases where the crop would flourish if 
planted at precisely the right time, where yet we cannot 
well, without drainage, seasonably prepare for the crop. 
Generally, however, lands too wet seasonably to plant, 
will give indications, throughout the season, of hidden 
water producing its ill effects. 

If the land be in grass, we find that aquatic plants, like 
rushes or water grasses, spring up with the seeds we have 
sown, and, in a few years, have possession of the field, 
and we are soon compelled to plow up the sod, and lay 


94 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


it again to grass. If it be in wheat or other grain, we 
see the held spotted and uneven; here a portion on some 
slight elevation, tall and dark colored, and healthy; and 
there a little depression, sparsely covered with a low 
and sickly growth. An American traveling in England 
in the growing season, will always be struck with the 
perfect evenness of the fields of grain upon the well- 
drained soil. Journeying through a considerable portion 
of England and Wales with intelligent English farmers, 
we were struck with their nice perception on this point. 

The slightest variation in the color of the wheat in the 
same or different fields, attracted their instant attention. 

“ That field is not well-drained ; the corn is too light- 
colored.” “ There is cold water at the bottom there; the 
corn cannot grow were the constant criticisms, as we 
passed across the country. Inequalities that, in our more 
careless cultivation, we should pass by without observa¬ 
tion, were at once explained by reference to the condition 
of the land as to water. 

The drill-sowing of wheat, and the careful weeding it 
with the horse-hoe and by hand, are additional reasons 
why the English fields should present a uniform appear¬ 
ance, and why any inequalities should be fairly referable 
to the condition of the soil. 

Upon a crop of Indian corn, the cold water lurking 
below soon places its unmistakable mark. The blade 
comes up yellow and feeble. It takes courage in a few 
days of bright sunshine in June, and tries to look hopeful, 
but a shower or an east wind again checks it. It had 
already more trouble than it could bear, and turns pale 
again. Tropical July and August induce it to throw up a 
feeble stalk, and to attempt to spindle and silk, like other 
corn. It goes through all the forms of vegetation, and 
yields at last a single nubbin for the pig. Indian corn 


WHAT LANDS REQUIRE Dll AIN AGE ? 


05 


must have land that is dry in Summer, or it cannot repay 
the labor of cultivation. 

Careful attention to the subject will soon teach any 
farmer what parts of his land are injured by too much 
water; and having determined that, the next question 
should be, whether the improvement of it by drainage 
will j ustify the cost of the operation. 

WILL IT PAY? 

Drainage is a permanent investment. It is not an 
operation like the application of manure, which we should 
expect to see returned in the form of salable crops in one 
or two years, or ten at most, nor like the labor applied in 
cultivating an annual crop. The question is not whether 
drainage will pay in one or two years, but will it pay in 
the long run ? Will it, when completed, return to the 
farmer a fair rate of interest for the money expended? 
Will it be more profitable, on the whole, than an invest¬ 
ment in bank or railway shares, or the purchase of West¬ 
ern lands ? Or, to put the question in the form in which 
an English land-owner would put it, will the rent of the 
land improved by drainage, be permanently increased 
enough to pay a fair interest on the cost of the improve¬ 
ment ? 

Let us bring out this idea clearly to the American 
farmer by a familiar illustration. Your field is worth to 
you now one hundred dollars an acre. It pays you, in a 
series of years, through a rotation of planting, sowing, 
and grass, a nett profit of six dollars an acre, above all 
expenses of cultivation and care. 

Suppose, now, it will cost one-third of a hundred dol¬ 
lars an acre to drain it, and you expend on each three 
acres one hundred dollars, wdiat must the increase of your 
crops be, to make this a fair investment ? Had you ex¬ 
pended the hundred dollars in labor, to produce a crop of 


96 


FA KM DK AIN AGE. 


cabbages, you ought to get your money all back, with a 
fair profit, the first year. Had you expended it in guano 
or other special manures, whose beneficial properties are 
exhausted in some two or three years, your expenditure 
should be returned within that period. But the improve¬ 
ment by drainage is permanent ; it is clone for all time to 
come. If, therefore, your drained land shall pay you a 
fair rate of interest on the cost of drainage, it is a good 
investment. Six per cent, is the most common rate of in¬ 
terest, and if, therefore, each three acres of your drained 
land shall pay you an increased annual income of six dol¬ 
lars, your money is fairly invested. This is at the rate of 
two dollars an acre. How much increase of crop will pay 
this two dollars ? In the common rotation of Indian corn, 
potatoes, oats, wheat, or barley, and grass, two or three 
bushels of corn, five or six bushels of potatoes, as many 
bushels of oats, a bushel or two of wheat, two or three 
bushels of barley, will pay the two dollars. Who, that 
has been kept back in his Spring’s work by the wetness of 
his land, or has been compelled to replant because his 
seed has rotted in the ground, or has experienced any of 
the troubles incident to cold wet seasons, will not admit 
at once, that any land which Nature has not herself 
thoroughly drained, will, in this view, pay for such im¬ 
provement ? 

But far more than this is claimed for drainage. In 
England, where such operations have been reduced to a 
system, careful estimates have been made, not only of the 
cost of drainage, but of the increase of crops by reason 
of the operation. 

In answer to questions proposed by a Board of Commis¬ 
sioners, in 1848, to persons of the highest reputation for 
knowledge on this point, the increase of crops by drainage 
was variously stated, but in no case at less than a paying 
rate. One gentleman says : “ A sixth of increase in 


I 

WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE? 97 

produce of grain crops may be taken as the very lowest 
estimate, and, in actual result, it is seldom less than one- 
fourth. In very many cases, after some following culti¬ 
vation, the produce is doubled, whilst the expense of 
working the land is much lessened.” Another says : “ In 
many instances, a return of fully 25 per cent, on the ex¬ 
penditure is realized, and in some even more.” A third 
remarks, “ My experience and observation have chiefly 
been in heavy clay soils, where the result of drainage is 
eminently beneficial, and where I should estimate the in¬ 
creased crop at six to ten bushels (wheat) per statute 
acre.” 

These are estimates made upon lands that had already 
been under cultivation. In addition to such lands as are 
merely rendered less productive by surplus water, we 
have, even on our hard New England farms—on side hills, 
where springs burst out, or at the foot of declivities, where 
the land is flat, or in runs, which receive the natural 
drainage of higher lands—many places which are abso¬ 
lutely unfit for cultivation, and worse than useless, because 
they separate those parts of the farm which can be culti¬ 
vated. If, of these wet portions, we make by draining, 
good, warm, arable land, it is not a mere question of per 
centage or profit ; it is simply the question whether the 
land, when drained, is worth more than the cost of drain¬ 
age. If it be, how much more satisfactory, and how much 
more profitable it is, to expend money in thus reclaiming 
the waste places of our farms, and so uniting the detached 
fields into a compact, systematic whole, than to follow the 
natural bent of American minds, and “ annex ” our neigh¬ 
bor’s fields by purchasing. 

Any number of instances could be given of the in¬ 
creased value of lands in England by drainage, but they 
are of little practical value. The facts, that the Govern¬ 
ment has made large loans in aid of the process, that pri- 
5 


98 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


vate drainage companies are executing extensive works 
all over the kingdom, and that large land-holders are 
draining at their own cost, are conclusive evidence to any 
rational mind, that drainage in Great Britain, at least, well 
repays the cost of the operation. 

In another chapter may be found accurate statements of 
American farmers of their drainage operations, in different 
States, from which the reader will be able to form a cor¬ 
rect opinion, whether draining in this country is likely to 
prove a profitable operation. 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


99 


CHAPTER Y. 

VARIOUS METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 

Open Ditches.—Slope of Banks.—Brush Drains.—Ridge and Furrow.—Plug- 
Draining.—Mole-Draining.—Mole-Plow.—Wedge and Shoulder Drains.— 
Larch Tubes.—Drains of Fence Rails, and Poles.—Peat Tiles.—Stone 
Drains Injured by Moles.— Downing’s Giraffes.—Illustrations of Various 
Kinds of Stone Drains. 


OPEN DITCHES. 

The most obvious mode of getting rid of surface-water 
is, to cut a ditcli on the surface to a lower place, and let it 
run. So, if the only object were to drain a piece of land 
merely for a temporary purpose—as, where land is too 
wet to ditch properly in the first instance, and it is neces¬ 
sary to draw off part of the surplus water before systematic 
operations are commenced—an open ditch is, perhaps, the 
cheapest method to be adopted. 

Again : where land to be drained is part of a large 
sloping tract, and water runs down, at certain seasons, in 
large quantities upon the surface, an open catch-water- 
ditch may be absolutely necessary. This condition of cir¬ 
cumstances is very common in mountainous districts, where 
the rain which falls on the hills flows down, either on 
the visible surface or on the rock-formation under the 
soil, and breaks out at the foot, causing swamps, often high 
up on the hill-sides. Often, too, in clay districts, where 
sand or loam two or three feet deep rests on tough clay, 
we see broad sloping tracts, which form our best grass- 
fields. 

If w T e are attempting to drain the lower part of such a 


100 


FA KM DRAINAGE. 


slope, we shall find that the water from the upper part 
flows down in large quantities upon us, and an open ditch 
may be most economical as a header, to cut off the down¬ 
flowing water; though, in most cases, a covered drain may 
be as efficient. 

At the outlets, too, of our tile or stone drains, when we 
come down nearly to the level of the stream which re¬ 
ceives our drainage-water, we find it convenient, often, 
and indeed necessary, to use open ditches—perhaps only 
a foot or two deep—to carry off the w r ater discharged. 
These ditches are of great importance, and should he 
finished with care, because, if they become obstructed, 
they cause back-water in the drains, and may ruin the 
whole work. 

Open drains are thus essential auxiliaries to the best 
plans of thorough drainage; and, whatever opinion may 
be entertained of their economy, many farmers are so 
situated that they feel obliged to resort to them for the 
present, or abandon all idea of draining their wet lands. 
We will, therefore, give some hints as to the best manner 
of constructing open drains; and then suggest, in the form 
of objections to them, such considerations as shall lead the 
proprietor who adopts this mode to consider carefully his 
plan of operations in the outset, with a view to obviate, 
as much as possible, the manifest embarrassments occa¬ 
sioned by them. 

As to the location of drains in swamps and peculiarly 
wet places, directions may be found in another chapter. 
We here propose only to treat of the mode of forming 
open drains, after their location is fixed. 

The worst of all drains is an open ditch, of equal width 
from toj) to bottom. It cannot stand a single season, in 
any climate or soil, without being seriously impaired by 
the frosts or the heavy rains. All open drains should be 
sloping; and it is ascertained, by experiment, what is the 


101 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 

best, or, as it is sometimes expressed, the natural slope, on 
different kinds of soil. If earth be tipped from a cart 
down a bank, and be left exposed to the action of the 
weather, it will rest, and finally remain, at a regular angle 
or inclination, varying from 21° to 55° with the horizon, 
according to the nature of the soil. The natural slope of 
common earth is found to be about 33° 42'; and this is 
the inclination usually adopted by railroad engineers for 
their embankments. 

If the banks of the open ditch are thus sloped, they will 
have the least possible tendency to wash away, or break 
down by frost. 

Again: where open ditches are adopted in mowing 
fields, they may, if not very deep, be sloped still lower 
than the natural slope, and seeded down to the bottom ; 
so that no land will be lost, and so that teams may pass 
across them. 

This amounts, in fact, to the old ridge and furrow sys¬ 
tem, which was almost universal in England before tiles 
were used, and is sometimes seen practiced in this country. 
The land, by that system, is back-furrowed in narrow 
bands, till it is laid up into beds, sloping from the tops, oi 
backs, to the furrows which constitute the drains. This 
mode of culture is very ancient, and is probably referred 
to in the language of the Psalmist, in the Scriptures: “Thou 
waterest the ridges thereof abundantly, thou settlest the 
furrows thereof, thou makest it soft with showers.” 

The objections to open ditches, as compared with under¬ 
drains, may be briefly stated thus : 

1. They are expensive. The excavation of a sloping drain 
is much greater than that of an upright drain. An open 
drain must have a width of one or two feet at the bottom, 
to receive the earth that always must, to some extent, 
wash into it. An open drain requires to be cleaned out 
mce a year, to keep it in good order. There is a large 


102 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


quantity of earth from an open drain to be disposed of, 
either by spreading or hauling away. Thus, a drain of 
this kind is costly at the outset, and requires constant 
labor and care to preserve it in working condition. 

2. They are not permanent. A properly laid under¬ 
drain will last half a century or more, but an open drain, 
especially if deep, has a constant tendency to till up. 
Besides, the action of frost and water and vegetation 
has a continual operation to obstruct open ditches. 
Bushes and water-grasses spring up luxuriantly in the 
wet and slimy bottom, and often, in a single season, 
retard the flow of water, so that it will stand many 
inches deep where the fall is slight. The slightest acci¬ 
dent, as the treading of cattle, the track of a loaded cart, 
the burrowing of animals, dams up the water and lessens 
the effect of the drain. Hence, we so often see meadows 
which have been drained in this way going back, in a few 
years, into wild grass and rushes. 

3. They obstruct good husbandry. In the chapter 
upon the effects of drainage on the condition of the soil, 
we suggest, in detail, the hindrances which open ditches 
present to the convenient cultivation of the land, and, 
especially, how they obstruct the farmer in his plowing, 
his mowing, his raking, and the general laying out of his 
land for convenient culture. 

4. They occupy too much land. If a ditch have an 
upright bank, it is so soft that cattle will not step within 
several feet of it in plowing, and thus a strip is lost for 
culture, or must be broken up by hand. If, indeed, we 
can get the plow near it, there being no land to rest 
against, the last furrow cannot be turned from the ditch, 
and if it be turned into it, must be thrown out by hand. 
If the banks be sloped to the bottom, and the land be 
thus laid into beds or ridges, the appearance of the field 
may, indeed, be improved, but there is still a loss of soil; 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


103 


lor the soil is all removed from the furrow, which will 
always produce rushes and water-grass, and carried to the 
ridge, where it doubles the depth of the natural soil. 
Thus, instead of a held of uniform condition, as to moist¬ 
ure and temperature and fertility, we have strips of wet, 
cold, and poor soil, alternating with dry, warm, and rich 
soil, establishing a sort of gridiron system, neither beau¬ 
tiful, convenient, nor profitable. 

5. The manure washes off and is lost . The three or 
four feet of water which the clouds annually give us in rain 
and snow, must either go off by evaporation, or by filtra¬ 
tion, or run off upon the surface. Under the title of Rain 
and Evaporation, it will be seen that not much more than 
half this quantity goes off by evaporation, leaving a vast 
quantity to pass off through or upon the soil. If lands 
are ridged up, the manure and finer portions of the soil 
are, to a great extent, washed away into the open ditches 
and lost. Of the water which filters downwards, a large 
portion enters open ditches near the surface, before the 
fertilizing elements have been strained out; whereas, in 
covered drains of proper depth, the water is filtered 
through a mass of soil sufficiently deep to take from it 
the fertilizing substances, and discharge it, comparatively 
pure, from the field. In a paper by Prof. Way (11th Jour. 
Roy. Ag. Soc.), on “ The Power of Soils to retain Manure,” 
will be found interesting illustrations of the filtering 
qualities of different kinds of soil. 

In addition to the above reasons for preferring covered 
drains, it has been asserted by one of the most skillful 
drainers in the world (Mr. Parkes), “ that a proper covered 
drain of the same depth as an open ditch, will drain 
a greater breadth of land than the ditch can effect. The 
sides of the ditch,” he says, “ become dried and plastered, 
and covered with vegetation; and even while they are 


104 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


free from vegetation, their absorptive power is inferior to 
the covered drain.” 

Of the depth, direction, and distance of drains, our 
views will be found under the appropriate heads. They 
apply alike to open and covered drains. 

BRUSH DRAINS. 

Having a farm destitute of stones, before tiles were 
known among us, we made several experiments with 
covered drains filled with brush. Some of those drains 
operated well for eight or ten years; others caved in and 
became useless in three or four years, according to the 
condition of the soil. 

In a wet swamp, a brash drain endures much longer 
than in sandy land, which is dry a part of the year, be¬ 
cause the brush decays in dry land, but will prove nearly 
imperishable in land constantly wet. In a peat or muck 
swamp, w r e should expect that such drains, if carefully 
constructed, might last twenty years, but that in a sandy 
loam, they would be quite unreliable for a single year. 

Our failure on upland with brush drains, has resulted, 
not from the decay of the wood, but from the entrance of 
sand, which obstructed the channel. Moles and field-mice 
find these drains the very day they are laid, and occupy 
them as permanent homes ever after. 

Those little animals live partly upon earth-worms, which 
they find by burrowing after them in the ground, and 
partly upon insects, and vegetation above ground. They 
have a great deal of business, which requires convenient 
passages leading from their burrows to the day-light, and 
drains in which they live will always be found perforated 
with holes from the surface. In the Spring, or in heavy 
showers, the water runs in streams into these holes, breaks 
down the soft soil as it goes, and finally the top begins to 
fall in, and the channel is choked up, and the work ruined. 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


105 


We have tried many precautions against this kind of 
accident, hut none that was effectual on light land. 

The general mode of construction is this: Open the 
trench to the depth required, and about 12 inches wide at 
the bottom. Lay into this poles of four or five inches 
diameter at the butt, leaving an open passage between. 
Then lay in brush of any size, the coarsest at the bottom, 
filling the drain to within a foot of the surface, and cover¬ 
ing with pine, or hemlock, or spruce boughs. Upon these 
lay turf, carefully cut, as close as possible. The brush 
should be laid but-end up stream, as it obstructs the water 
less in this way. Fill up with soil a foot above the sur¬ 
face, and tread it in as hard as possible. The weight of 
earth will compress the brush, and the surface will settle 
very much. We have tried placing boards at the sides, 
and upon the top of the brush, to prevent the caving in, 
but with no great success. Although our drains thus laid, 
have generally continued to discharge some water, yet 
they have, upon upland, been dangerous traps and pit-falls 
for our horses and cattle, and have cost much labor to fill 
up the holes, where they have fallen through by washing 
away below. 

In clay, brush drains might be more durable. In the 
English books, we have descriptions of drains filled with 
thorn cuttings from hedges and with gorse. When well 
laid in clay, they are said to last about 15 years. When 
the thorns decay, the clay will still retain its form, and 

leave a passage for the water. 

A writer in the Cyclopedia sums up the matter as to 

this kind of drains, thus: 

a Although in some districts they are still employed,they can only 
he looked upon as a clumsy, and superficial plan ot doing that "which can 
be executed in a permanent and satisfactory manner, at a very small 
additional expense, now that draining-tiles are so cheap and plentiful 7 

Drainino-tiles are not yet eithei cheap or plentiful in 
5 * 


106 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


this country ; but we have full faith that they will become 
so very soon. In the mean time it may be profitable for us 
to use such of the substitutes for them as may lie within 
our reach, selecting one or another according as material 
is convenient. 

PLUG-DRAINING 

has never been, that we are aware, practiced in America. 
Our knowledge of it is limited to what we learn from 
English books. We, therefore, content ourselves with 
giving from Morton’s Cyclopedia the following descrip¬ 
tion and illustrations. 

“ Plug-draining, like mole-draining, does not require the use of any 
foreign material—the channel for the water being wholly formed of 
clay, to which this kind of drain, like that last mentioned is alone suited. 

“ This method of draining requires a particular set of tools for its 
execution, consisting of, first, a common spade, by means of which the 
first spit is removed, and laid on one side; second, a smaller-sized 
spade, by means of which the second spit is taken out, and laid on the 
opposite side of the trench thus formed; third, a peculiar instrument 
called a bitting iron (Fig. 11), consisting of a narrow spade, three and a 



half feet in length, and one and a half inches wide at the mouth and 
sharpened like a chisel; the mouth, or blade, being half an inch in 
thickness in order to give the necessary strength to so slender an imple¬ 
ment. From the mouth, a, on the right-hand side, a ring of steel, b , 
six inches long and two and a half broad, projects at right angles ; and 
on the left, at fourteen inches from the mouth, a tread, c, three inches 
long, is fitted. 

“ A number of blocks of wood, each one foot long, six inches high, 
and two inches thick at the bottom, and two and a half at the top, are 
next required. From four to six of these are joined together by pieces 














METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


107 


of hoop-iron let into their sides by a saw-draught, a small space being 
left between their ends, so that when completed, the whole forms a 
somewhat flexible bar, as shown in the cut, to one end of which a 



stout chain is attached. These blocks are wetted, and placed with the 
narrow end undermost, in the bottom of the trench, which should be 
cut so as to fit them closely; the clay which has been dug out is then 
to be returned, by degrees, upon the blocks, and rammed down with a 
wooden rammer three inches wide. As soon as the portion of the 
trench above the blocks, or plugs, has been filled, they are drawn for¬ 
ward, by means of a lever thrust through a link of the chain, and into 
the bottom of the drain for a fulcrum, until they are all again exposed, 
except the last one. The further portion of the trench, above the blocks, 
is now filled in and rammed, and so on the operations proceed until the 
whole drain is finished. 

MOLE DRAINING. 

We hear of an implement, in use in Illinois and other 
Western States, called the Gopher Flow, worked by 
a capstan, which drains wet land by merely drawing 
through it an iron shoe, at about two and a half feet in 
depth, without the use of any foreign substance. 

We hear reports of a mole plow, in use in the same 
State, known by the name of Marcus and Emerson’s 
Patent Subsoiler, with which, an informant says, drains 
are made also in the manner above named. This machine 

















108 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


is worked by a windlass power, by a horse or yoke of 
oxen, and the price charged is twenty-eight cents a rod 
for the work. These machines are, from description, 
modifications of the English Mole Plow, an implement 
long ago known and used in Great Britain. 



The following description is from Morton’s Cyclopedia: 

11 Mole-Drains are the simplest of all the forms of the covered drains. 
They are formed by means of a machine called the mole plow. This 
machine consists of along wooden beam and stilts, somewhat in the 
form of the subsoil plow; but instead of the apparatus for breaking up 
the subsoil in the latter, a short cylindrical and pointed bar of iron is 
attached, horizontally, to the lower end of the broad coulter, which can 
be raised or lowered by means of a slot in the beam. The beam itself 
is sheathed with iron on the under side, and moves close to the ground; 
thus keeping the bar at the end of the coulter at one uniform depth. 
This machine is dragged through the soft clay, which is the only kind 
of land on which it can be used with propriety, by means of a chain and 
capstan, worked by horses, and produces a hollow channel very similar 
to a mole-run, from which it derives its name.' 5 

A correspondent of the Neio York Tribune thus de¬ 
scribes the operation and utility of a mole plow, which he 
saw on the farm of Major A. B. Dickinson, of Hornby, 
Steuben County, Hew York : 

“ I believe there is not a rod of tile laid on this farm, and not a dozen 



























































METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


109 


rods of covered stone drain. But the major has a home-made, or, at 
least, home-devised, ‘bull plow,’ consisting of a sharp-pointed iron 
wedge, or roller, surmounted by a broad, sharp shank nearly four feet 
high, with a still sharper cutter in front, and with a beam and handles 
above all. With five yoke of oxen attached, this plow is put down 
through the soil and subsoil to an average depth of three feet—in the 
course which the superfluous water is expected and desired to take—and 
the field thus plowed through and through, at intervals of two rods, 
down to three feet, as the ground is more or less springy and saturated 
with water. The cut made by the shank closes after the plow and is 
soon obliterated, while that made by the roller, or wedge, at the bottom, 
becomes the channel of a stream of water whenever there is any ex¬ 
cess of moisture above its level, which stream tends to clear itself and 
rather enlarge its channel. From ten to twenty acres a day are thus 
drained, and Major D. has such drains of fifteen to twenty years’ stand¬ 
ing, which still do good service. In rocky soils, this mode of draining 
is impracticable ) in sandy tracts it would not endure ) but here it does 
very well, and, even though it should hold good in the average but ten 
years, it would many times repay its cost.” 

Major Dickinson himself, in a recent address, thus speaks 
of what he calls his 


SIIANGHAE PLOW. 

“ I will take the poorest acre of stubble ground, and if too wet for 
corn in the first place, I will thoroughly drain it with a Shanghae plow 
and four yoke of oxen in three hours. 

u I will suppose the acre to be twenty rods long and eight rods wide. 
To thoroughly drain the worst of your clay subsoil, it may require a drain 
once in eight feet, and they can be made so cheaply that I can afFord to 
make them at that distance. To do so, will require the team to travel 
sixteen times over the twenty rods lengthwise, or one mile in three 
hours • two men to drive, one to hold the plow, one to ride the beam, 
and one to carry the crowbar, pick up any large stones thrown out by 
going to the right or left, and to help to carry around the plow, which - 
is too heavy for the other two to do quickly. 

11 The plow is quite simple in its construction, consisting of a round 
piece of iron three and a half or four inches in diameter, drawn down 
to a point, with a furrow cut in the top one and a half inches deep ; a 
plate, eighteen inches wide and three feet long, with one end welded 
into the furrow of the round bar, while the other is fastened to the 


110 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


beam. The coulter is six inches in width, and is fastened to the beam 
at one end, and at the other to the point of the round bar. The coulter 
and plate are each three-fourths of an inch thick, which is the entire 
width of the plow above the round iron at the bottom. 

u It would require much more team to draw this plow on some soils 
than on yours. The strength of team depends entirely on the character 
of the subsoil. Cast-iron, with the exception of the coulter, for an easy 
soil would be equally good ; and from eighteen to twenty-four inches is 
sufficiently deep to run the plow. I can as thoroughly drain an acre of 
ground in this way as any that can be found in Seneca County.” 

From the best information we can gather, it w r ould seem, 
that on certain soils with a clay subsoil, the mole plow, 
as a sort of pioneer implement, may be very useful. The 
above account certainly indicates that on the farm in 
question it is very cheap, rapid, and effectual in its opera¬ 
tion. 

Stephens gives a minute description of the mole jdow 
figured above, in his Book of the Farm. Its general struc¬ 
ture and principle of operation may be easily understood 
by what has been already said, and any person desirous ot 

constructing one may find in that work exact directions. 

♦ 

WEDGE AND SHOULDER DRAINS. 

These, like the last-mentioned kind of drains, are mere 
channels formed in the subsoil. They have, therefore, the 
same fault of want of durability, and are totally unfitted for 
land under the plow. In forming wedge-drains , the first 
spit, with the turf attached, is laid on one side, and the 
earth removed from the remainder of the trench is laid on 
the other. The last spade used is very narrow, and tapers 
rapidly, so as to form a narrow wedge-shaped cavity for 
the bottom of the trench. The turf first removed is then 
cut into a wedge, so much larger than the size of the 
lower part of the drain, that when rammed into it with the 
grassy side undermost, it leaves a vacant space in the bot¬ 
tom six or eight inches in depth, as in Fig. IT. 

The shoulder-drain does not differ very materially from 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


Ill 

the wedge-drain. Instead of the whole trench forming a 
gradually tapering wedge, the upper portion of the shoul¬ 
der-drain has the sides of the trench nearly perpendicular, 
and of considerable width, the last spit only being taken 
out with a narrow, tapering spade, by which means a 
shoulder is left on either side, from which it takes its name. 
After the trench has been finished, the first spit, having 
the grassy side undermost as in the former case, is placed 
in the trench, and pushed down till it rests upon the shoul¬ 
ders already mentioned ; so that a narrow wedge-shaped 
channel is again left for the water, as shown in Fig. 15. 




These drains may be formed in almost any kind of land 
which is not a loose gravel or sand. They are a very 
cheap kind of drain; for neither the cost of cutting nor 
filling in, much exceeds that of the ordinary tile drain, 
while the expense of tiles or other materials is altogether 
saved. Still, such drains cannot be recommended, for 
they are very liable to injury, and, even under the most 
favorable circumstances, can only last a very limited time. 

LARCH TUBES. 

These have been used in Scotland, in mossy or swampy 
soils, it is said, with economy and good results. The tube 









112 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


represented below presents a square of 4 inches outside, 




flpH 


o o 

o 

o 









- • 

© • • o .* 

_ 

O . ' 

• •• / 


Fig. 16.—Larch Tube-Drain. 


with a clear water-way of 2 inches. Any other durable 
wood will, of course, answer the same purpose. The 
tube is pierced with holes to admit the water. In wet 
meadows, these tubes laid deep would be durable 
and efficient, and far more reliable than brush or even 
stones, because they may be better protected from the 
admission of sand and the ruinous working of vermin. 
Their economy depends upon the price of the wood and 
the cost of tiles—which are far better if they can be rea¬ 
sonably obtained. 

Near Washington, D. C., we know of drainage tolerably 
well performed by the use of common fence-rails. A 
trench is opened about three inches wider at bottom than 
two rails. Two rails are then laid in the bottom, leaving 
a space of two or three inches between them. A third 
rail is then laid on for a cover, and the whole carefully 
covered with turf or straw, and then filled up with earth. 
Poles of any kind may be used instead of rails, if more 
convenient. 

In clay, these drains would be efficient and durable ; in 
sand, they would be likely to be filled up and become 
useless. This is an extravagant waste of timber, except 
in the new districts where it is of no value. 

Mr. J. F. Anderson, of Windham, Maine, has adopted 
a mode of draining with poles, which, in regions where 
wood is cheap and tiles are dear, may be adopted with 
advantage. 

Two poles, of from 3 to 6 inches diameter, are laid at 
the bottom of the ditch, with a water-way of half their 
diameter between them. Upon these, a third pole is laid, 






METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


113 


thus forming a duct of the desired dimensions. The 

security of this drain will depend upon 
the care with which it is protected by a 
covering of turf and the like, to prevent 
the admission of earth, and its perma¬ 
nency will depend much upon its being 
placed low enough to be constantly wet, 
as such materials are short-lived wdien 
frequently wet and dried, and nearly 
imperishable if constantly wet. It is 
unnecessary to place brush or stones 
over such drains to make them draw, as 
it is called. The water will find admis¬ 
sion fast enough, and take with it earth 
enough to' destroy the work, unless 
great care is used. 

In Ireland, and in some parts of England and Scotland, 
peat-tiles are sometimes used in draining bogs. They are 
cheap and very durable in such localities, but, probably, 
will not be used in this country. They are formed some¬ 
what like pipes, of two pieces of peat. Two halves are 
formed wfith a peculiar tool, with a half circle in each. 



Fig. 19.—Peat-Tiles. 

When well dried, they are placed together, thus making a 
round opening. 

In draining, the object being merely to form a durable 













114 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


opening in the soil, at suitable depth, which will receive 
and conduct away the water which filters through the 
soil, it is obvious that a thousand expedients may be 
resorted to, to suit the peculiar circumstances of persons. 
In general, the danger to be apprehended is from obstruc¬ 
tion of the water-way. Nothing, except a tight tube of 
metal or wood, will be likely to prevent the admission of 
water. 

Economy and durability are, perhaps, the main consid¬ 
erations. Tiles, at fair prices, combine these qualities 
better than anything else. Stones, however, are both 
cheap and durable, so far as the material is concerned; 
but the durability of the material, and the durability of 
the drains, are quite different matters. 

DRAINS OF STONES. 

Providence has so liberally supplied the greater part of 
New England with stones, that it seems to most inex¬ 
perienced persons to be a work of supererogation, almost, 
to manufacture tiles or any other draining material for 
our farms. 

We would by no means discourage the use or stones, 
where tiles cannot be used with greater economy jf Stone 
drains are, doubtless, as efficient as any, so long as the 
water-way can be kept open. The material is often close 
at hand, lying on the field and to be removed as a 
nuisance, if not used in drainage. In such cases, true 
economy may dictate the use of them, even where tiles 
can be procured; though, we believe, tiles will be found 
generally cheaper, all things considered, where made in 
the neighborhood. 

In treating of the cost of drainage, we have undertaken 
to give fair estimates of the comparative cost of different 
materials. 

Every farmer is capable of making estimates for him- 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


115 


self, and of testing those made by us, and so of determin¬ 
ing what is true economy in his particular case. 

The various modes of constructing drains of stones, may 
he readily shown by simple illustrations: 



Fig. 20. 


Fig. 21. 



If stone-drains are decided upon, the mode of construct¬ 
ing them will depend upon the kind of stone at hand. In 
some localities, round pebble-stones are found scattered 
over the surface, or piled in heaps upon our farms; in 
others, flat, slaty stones abound, and in others,broken stones 
from quarries may be more convenient. Of these, probably, 




















116 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the least reliable is the drain tilled with pebble-stones, or 
broken stones of small size. They are peculiarly liable to be 
obstructed, because there is no regular water-way, and the 
flow of the water must, of course, be very slow, impeded 
as it is by friction at all points with the irregular surfaces. 

Sand, and other obstructing substances, which find their 
way, more or less, into all drains, are deposited among the 
stones—the water having no force of current sufficient to 
carry them forward—and the drain is soon filled up at 
some point, and ruined. 

Miles of such drains have been laid on many New 
England farms, at shoal depths, of two or two and a half 
feet, and have in a few years failed. For a time, their effect, 
to those unaccustomed to under-drainage, seems almost 
miraculous. The wet field becomes dry, the wild grass 
gives place to clover and lierds-grass, and the experiment 
is pronounced successful. After a few years, however, 
the wild grass re-appears, the water again stands on the 
surface, and it is ascertained, on examination, that the 
drain is in some place packed solid with earth, and is filled 
with stagnant water. 

The fault is by no means wholly in the material. In 
clay or hard pan, such a drain may be made durable, with 
proper care, but it must be laid deep enough to be beyond 
the effect of the treading of cattle and of loaded teams, 
and the common action of frost. They can hardly be laid 
low enough to be beyond the reach of our great enemy, 
the mole, which follows relentlessly all our operations. 

We recollect the remarks of Mr. Downing about the 
complaints in New England, of injury to fruit-trees by the 
gnawing of field-mice. * 

He said he should as soon think of danger from injury 
by giraffes as field-mice, in his own neighborhood, though 
he had no doubt of their depredations elsewhere ! 

It may seem to many, that we lay too much stress on 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


117 


this point, of danger from moles and mice. We know 
whereof we do testify in this matter. We verily believe 
that we never finished a drain of brush or stones, on our 
farm, ten rods long, that there was not a colony of these 
varmint in the one end of it, before we had finished the 
other. If these drains, however, are made three or four 
feet deep, and the solid earth rammed hard over the turf 
which covers the stones, they will be comparatively safe. 

The figures 24 and 25 below, represent a mode of laying 
stone drains, practiced in Ireland, which will be found 
probably more convenient and secure than any other 
method, for common small drains. A flat stone is set 
upright against one side of the ditch, which should be 
near the bottom, perpendicular. Another stone is set 
leaning against the first, with its foot resting against the 
opposite bank. If the soil be soft clay, a flat stone may be 
placed first on the bottom of the ditch, for the water to flow 
upon ; but this will be found a great addition to the labor, 
unless flat stones of peculiarly uniform shape and thick¬ 
ness are at hand. A board laid at the bottom will be usu¬ 
ally far cheaper, and less liable to cause obstructions. 




Figs. 24, 25.— Stone Drains. 

Figure 25 represents the ditch without the small stones 









118 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


above the duct. These small stones are, in nine cases in 
ten, worse than useless, for they are not only unnecessary 
to admit the water, but furnish a harbor for mice and 
other vermin. 

Drawings, representing a filling of small stones above 
the duct, have been copied from one work to another for 
generations, and it seems never to have occurred, even 
to modern writers, that the small stones might be omitted. 
Any one, who knows anything of the present system 
of draining with tiles, must perceive at once that, if we 
have the open triangular duct or the square culvert, the 
water cannot be kept from finding it, by any filling over 
it with such earth as is usually found in ditching. For¬ 
merly, when tiles were used, the ditch was filled above 
the tiles, to the height of a foot or more, with broken 
stones ; but this practice has been everywhere abandoned 
as expensive and useless. 

An opening of any form, equal to a circle of two or 
three inches diameter, will be sufficient in most cases, 
though the necessary size of the duct must, of course, 
depend on the quantity of water which may be expected 
to flow in it at the time of the greatest flood. 

Whatever the form of the stone drain, care should be 
taken to make the joints as close as possible, and turf, 
shavings, straw, tan, or some other material, should be 
carefully placed over the joints, to prevent the washing in 
of sand, which is the worst enemy of all drains. 

It is not deemed necessary to remark particularly upon 
the mode of laying large drains for water-courses, with 
abutments and covering stones, forming a square duct, 
because it is the mode universally known and practiced. 
For small drains, in thorough-draining lands, it may, how¬ 
ever, be remarked, that this is, perhaps, the most expen¬ 
sive of all modes, because a much greater width of exca¬ 
vation is necessary in order to place in position the two 


METHODS OF DRAINAGE. 


119 


side stones and leave the requisite space between them. 
That mode of drainage which requires the least excavation 
and the least carriage of materials, and consequently the 
least filling up and levelling, is usually the cheapest. 

Our -conclusion as to stone drains is, that, at present, 
they may be, in many cases, found useful and economical; 
and even where tiles are to be procured at present prices 
stones may well be used, where materials are at hand, for 
the largest drains. 


120 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER YI. 

DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 

What are Drain-Tiles?—Forms of Tiles.—Pipes.—Horse-shoe Tiles.—Sole- 
Tiles.—Form of Water-Passage.—Collars and their Use.—Size of Pipes.— 
Velocity.—Friction.—Discharge of Water through Pipes.—Tables of 
Capacity.—How Water enters Tiles.—Deep Drains run soonest and 
longest.—Pressure of Water on Pipes.—Durability of Tile Drains.— 
Drain-Bricks 100 years old. 


WHAT ARE DRAIN-TILES ? 

This would be an absurd question to place at the head 
of a division in a work intended for the English public, 
tor tiles are as common in England as bricks, and their 
forms and uses as familiar to all. But in America, though 
tiles are used to a considerable extent in some localities, 
probably not one farmer in one hundred in the whole 
country ever saw one. 

The author has recently received letters of inquiry 
about the use and cost of tiles, from which it is manifest 
that the writers have in their mind as tiles, the square 
bricks with which our grandfathers used to lay their 
hearths. 

In Johnstone’s Report to the Board of Agriculture on 
Rlkington's System of Draining , published in England in 
1797, the only kind of tiles or clay conduits described or 
alluded to by him, are what he calls “draining-bricks,” of 
which he gives drawings, which we transfer to our pages 
precisely as found in the American edition. It will be 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


121 


seen to be as clums 3 r a contrivance as could well be 
devised; 



Fig. 26.—Deaining-Bricks. 


So lately as 1856, tiles were brought from Albany, 
N. Y., to Exeter, 1ST. H., nearly 300 miles, by railway, at 
a cost, including freight, of $25 a thousand for two-inch 
pipes, and it. is believed that no tiles were ever made in 
New Hampshire till the year 1857. These facts will soon 
become curiosities in agricultural literature, and so are 
worth preserving. They furnish excuse, too, for what 
may appear to learned agriculturists an unnecessary par¬ 
ticularity in what might seem the well-known facts 
relative to tile-drainage. 

Drain-tiles are made of clay of almost any quality that 
will make bricks, moulded by a machine into tubes, or 
into half-tube or horse-shoe forms, usually fourteen inches 
long before drying, and burnt in a furnace or kiln to be 
about as hard as what are called hard-burnt bricks. They 
are usually moulded about half an inch in thickness, 
varying with the size and form of the tile. The sizes 
vary from one inch to six inches, and sometimes larger, in 
the diameter of the bore. The forms are also very 
various; and as this is one of the most essential matters, 
6 





































122 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


as affecting the efficiency, the cost, and the durability of 
tile-drainage, it will be well to give it critical attention. 


THE FORMS OF TILES. 

The simplest, cheapest, and best form of drain-tile is 
the cylinder, or merely a tube, round outside and with a 
round bore. 



Figs. 2T, 28, 29.— Round Pipes. 


Tiles of this form, and all others which are tubular, are 
called pipes, in distinction from those with open bottoms, 
like those of horse-shoe form. 

About forty years ago, as Mr. Gisborne informs us, 
small pipes for land-drainage were used, concurrently, by 
persons residing in the counties of Lincoln, Oxford, and 
Kent, who had, probably, no knowledge of each other’s 
operations. Most of those pipes were made with eyelet- 
holes, to admit the water. Pipes for thorough-draining 
excited no general attention till they were exhibited by 
John Head at the show at Derby, in the year 1843. A 
medal was awarded to the exhibitor. Mr. Parkes was 
one of the judges, and brought the pipes to the special 
notice of the council. From this time, inventions and im¬ 
provements were rapid, and soon, collars were introduced, 
and the use of improved machines to mould the pipes; 













































DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


123 


and drainage, under the fostering influence of the Royal 
Agricultural Society, became a subject of general atten¬ 
tion throughout the kingdom. The round pipe, or the 
pipe , as it seems, par excellence , to he termed by English 
drainers, though one of the latest, if not the last form of 
tiles introduced in England, has become altogether the 
most popular among scientific men, and is generally used 
in all works conducted under the charge of the Land 
Drainage Companies. This ought to settle the question 
for us, when we consider that the immense sum of twenty 
millions of dollars of public funds has been expended by 
them, in addition to vast amounts of private funds, and 
that the highest practical talent of the nation is engaged 
in the work. 

After giving some idea of the various forms of tiles in 
use, it is, however, proposed to examine the question 
upon its merits, so that each may judge for himself which 
is best. 

The earliest form of tiles introduced for the purpose of 
thorough-drainage, was the horse-shoe tile, so called from 
its shape. The horse-shoe tile has been sometimes used 
without any sole to form the bottom of the drain, thus 
leaving the water to run on the ground. There can hardly 
be a question of the false economy of this mode, for the 
hardest and most impervious soil softens under the con¬ 
stant action of running -water, and then the edges of the 
tiles must sink, or the bottom of the drain rise, and thus 
destroy the work. 

Various devices have been tried to save the expense of 
soles, such as providing the edges of the tiles with flanges 
or using pieces of soles on which to rest the ends of the 
tiles. They all leave the bottom of the drain unprotected 
against the wearing action of the w r ater. 

Horse-shoe tiles, or “ tops and bottoms ” as they are 
called in some counties, are still much used in England; 




124 : 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


and in personal conversation with farmers there, the writer 
found a strong opinion expressed in their favor. The ad¬ 
vantages claimed for the “ tops and bottoms” are, that they 
lie firmly in place, and that they admit the water more 
freely than others. 

The objections to them are, that they are more expen¬ 
sive than round pipes, and are not so strong, and are not 
so easily laid, and that they do not discharge water so 
well as tiles with a round bore. In laying them, they 
should be made to rest partly upon two adjoining soles, or 
to break bond, as it is called. The soles are made separate 
from the tiles, and are merely flat pieces, of sufficient 
width to support firmly both edges of the tiles. The soles 
are usually an inch wider than the tiles. 



Fig. 30 —House-shoe Tiles and Soles. 

The above figure represents the horse-shoe tiles and 
soles properly placed. 

As this form of tile has been generally used by the most 
successful drainers in blew York, it may be well to cite 
the high authority of Mr. Gisborne for the objections 
which .have been suggested. It should be recollected in 
this connection, that the drainage in this country has been 
what in England would be called shallow, and that it is 
too recent to have borne the test of time. 

Mr. Gisborne says: 

We shall shock and surprise many of our readers, when we state 
confidently that, in average soils, and still more in those which are 
inclined to be tender, horse-shoe tiles form the weakest and most failing 
conduit which has ever been used for a deep drain. It is so, however • 
and a little thought, even if we had no experience, will tell us that it 
must be so. 

£C A horse-shoe tile, which may be a tolerably secure conduit in a 
drain of 2 feet, in one of 4 feet becomes an almost certain failure. As 









DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


125 


to the longitudinal fracture, not only is the tile subject to be broken 
by one of those slips which are so troublesome in deep draining, and to 
which the lightly-filled, material, even when the drain is completed, 
offers an imperfect resistance, but the constant pressure together of the 
sides, even when it does not produce a fracture of the soil, catches hold 
of the feet of the tile, and breaks it through the crown. When the 
Regent’s Park was first drained, large conduits were in fashion, and they 
were made circular by placing one horse-shoe tile upon another. It 
would be difficult to invent a weaker conduit. On re-drainage, innu¬ 
merable instances were found in which the upper tile was broken 
through the crown and had dropped into the lower. 

Another form of tiles, called sole-tiles , or sole-pipes , 
is much used in America, more indeed than any other, 
except perhaps the horse-shoe tile; probably, because the 
first manufacturers fancied them the best, and offered no 
others in the market. 

In this form, the sole is solid with the tile. The bottom 
is flat, but the bore is round, or oval, or egg-shaped, with 
the small end of the orifice downward. 



The sole-pipe has considerable advantages theoretically. 
The opening or bore is of the right shape, the bottom lies 
fair and firm in place, and the drain, indeed, is perfect, if 
carefully and properly laid. 

The objections to the sole-pipes are, that they are some¬ 
what more expensive than round pipes, and that they 
require great care in placing them, so as to make the 
passage even from one pipe to another. 

A slight depression of one side of a pipe of this kind, 
especially if the bore be oval or egg-shaped, throws the 
water passage out of line. In laying them, the author has 
taken the precaution to place under each joint a thin piece 
of wood, such as our honest shoe manufacturers use for 










126 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


stiffening in shoes, to keep the bottoms of the pipes even, 
at least until the ground has settled compactly, and as 
much longer as they may escape “ decay’s effacing finger.” 

Collars for tiles are used wherever a sudden descent 
occurs in the course of a drain, or where there is a loose 
sand or a boggy place, and by many persons they are used 
in all drains through sandy or gravelly land. 



Fig. 32 .—Pipes and Collar. 


The above figure represents pipe-tiles fitted with collars. 
Collars are merely short sections of pipes of such size as 
to fit upon the smaller ones loosely, covering the joint, and 
holding the ends in place, so that they cannot slip past 
each other. In very bad places, small pipes may be en¬ 
tirely sheathed in larger ones; and this is advisable in 
steep descents or flowing sands. 

A great advantage in round pipes -is, that there is no 
wrong-side-up to them, and they are, therefore, more 
readily placed in position than tiles of any other form. 

Again: all tiles are more or less warped in drying and 
burning; and, where it is desired to make perfect work, 
round pipes may be turned so as to make better joints and 
a straighter run for the water—which is very important. 

If collars are used, there is still less difficulty in adjust¬ 
ing the pipes so as to make the lines straight, and far less 
danger of obstruction by sand or roots. Indeed, it is be¬ 
lieved that no drain can be made more perfect than with 
round pipes and collars. 

As it is believed that few collars have ever yet been 
used in this country, and the best drainers in England are 
not agreed as to the necessity of using them, we give the 
opinions of two or three distinguished gentlemen, in their 
own language. Mr. Gisborne says : 

u We were astounded to find, at the conclusion of Mr. Parkes’ New- 









DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


127 


castle Lecture, this sentence : 1 It may be advisable for me to say, that 
in clays, and other clean-cutting and firm-bottomed soils, I do not find 
the collars to be indispensably necessary, although I always prefer their 
use.’ This is a barefaced treachery to pipes, an abandonment of the 
strongest point in their case—the assured continuity of the conduit. 
Every one may see how very small a disturbance at their point of 
junction would dissociate two pipes of one inch diameter. One finds a 
soft place in the bottom of the drain and dips his nose into it one inch 
deep, and cocks up his other end. By this simple operation, the con¬ 
tinuity of the conduit is twice broken. An inch of lateral motion pro¬ 
duces the same effect. Pipes of a larger diameter than two inches are 
generally laid without collars. This is a practice on which we do not 
look with much complacency; it is the compromise between cost and 
security, to which the affairs of men are so often compelled. No doubt, 
a conduit from three to six inches in diameter is much less subject to a 
breach in its continuity than one which is smaller; but, when no col¬ 
lars are used, the pipes should be laid with extreme care, and the bed 
which is prepared for them at the bottom of the drain should be worked 
to their size and shape with great accuracy. 

“ To one advantage which is derived from the use of collars we have 
not yet adverted—the increased facility with which free water existing 
in the soil can find entrance into the conduit. 

11 The collar for a one and a half inch pipe has a circumference 
of three inches. The whole space between the collar and the pipe, 
on each side of the collar, is open, and affords no resistance to the 
entrance of water ■ while, at the same time, the superincumbent 
arch of the collar protects the junction of two pipes from the in¬ 
trusion of particles of soil. We confess to some .original misgivings, 
that a pipe resting only on an inch at each end, and lying hollow, 
might prove weak, and liable to fracture by weight pressing on it from 
above; but the fear was illusory. Small particles of soil trickle down 
the sides of every drain, and the first flow of water will deposit them in 
the vacant space between the two collars. The bottom, if at all soft, 
will also swell up into any vacancy. Practically, if you re-open a 
drain well laid with pipes and collars, you will find them reposing in a 
beautiful nidus, which, when they are carefully removed, looks exactly 
as if it had been moulded for them.” 

As to tlie danger of breaking the pipes, which might 
well be apprehended, we found by actual experiment, at 
the New York Central Park, that a one-inch Albany pipe 


128 


FAKM DliAINAGE. 


resting on collars upon a floor, with a bearing at each end 
of but one inch, w T ould support the weight of a man 
weighing 160 pounds, standing on one foot on the middle 
of the pipe. 

Mr. Parkes sums up his opinion upon the subject of col¬ 
lars, in these words : 

“ It may be advisable for me to say, that in clays, and other clean¬ 
cutting and firm-bottomed soils, I do not find collars to be at all neces¬ 
sary; but that they are essential in all sandy, loose, and soft strata.” 

In draining in the neighborhood of trees, collars are also 
supposed to be of great use in preventing the intrusion of 
roots into the pipes, although it may be impossible, even 
in this way, to exclude the roots of water-loving trees. 

From the most careful inquiry that the writer v T as able 
to make, as to the practice in England, he is satisfied that 
collars are not generally used there in the drainage of 
clays, but that the pipes are laid in openings shaped for 
them at the bottom of the drains, with a tool which forms 
a groove into which the pipes fall readily into line, and 
very little seems to be said of collars in the published 
estimates of the cost of drainage. 

On this subject, w r e have the opinion of Mr. Denton, 
thus expressed : 

u The use of collars is by no means general, although those who have 
used them speak highly of their advantages. Except in sandy soils, 
and in those that are subject to sudden alteration of character, in some 
of the deposits of red sand-stones, and in the clayey subsoils of the 
Bagshot sand district, for instance, collars are not found to be essential 
to good drainage. In the north of England they are used but seldom, 
and, in my opinion, much less than they ought to be; but this opinion, 
it is right to state, is opposed, in numerous instances of successful 
drainage, by men of extensive practice; and as every cause of increas¬ 
ed outlay is to be avoided, the value of collars, as general appliances, 
remains an open question. In all the more porous subsoils in which 
collars have not been used, the more successful drainers increase the 
size of the pipes in the minor drains to a minimum size of two inches 
bore."'' 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


129 


The form of the bore , or water passage , in tiles, is a point 
of more importance tlian at first appears. At one of our 
colleges, certain plank sewers, in the ordinary square form, 
were often obstructed by the sediment from the dirty 
water. “ Turn them cornerwise,” suggested the professor 
of Natural Philosophy. It was done, and ever after they 
kept in order. The pressure of water depends on its height, 
or head. Everybody knows that six feet of water carries 
a mill-wheel better than one foot. The same principle oper¬ 
ates on a small scale. An inch head of water presses harder 
than a half inch. The velocity of water, again, depends 
much on its height. Whether there be much or little 
water passing through a drain, it has manifestly a greater 
power to make its way, to drive before it sand or other 
obstructions, when it is heaped up in a round passage, 
than when wandering over the flat surface of a tile sole. 
Any one who has observed the discharge of water from 
flat-bottomed and round tiles, will be satisfied that the 
quantity of water which is sufficient to run in a rapid 
stream of a half or quarter inch diameter from a round 
tile, will lazily creep along the flat bottom of a sole tile, 
with hardly force sufficient to turn aside a grain of sand, 
or to bring back to light an enterprising cricket that may 
have entered on an exploration. On the whole, solid tiles, 
with flat-bottomed passages, may be set down among the 
inventions of the adversary. They have not the claims 
even of the horse-shoe form to respect, because they do 
not admit water better than round pipes, and are not united 
by a sole on which the ends of the adjoining tiles rest. 
They combine the faults of all other forms, with the pecu¬ 
liar virtues of none. 



Fig. 33 —Flat-bottomed Pipe-Tile. 


6 * 









130 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


From an English report on the drainage of towns, the 
following, which illustrates this point, is taken : 

“ It was found that a large proportion of sewers were constructed 
with flat bottoms, which, when there was a small discharge, spread the 
water, increased the friction, retarded the flow, and accumulated de¬ 
posit. It was ascertained, that by the substitution of circular sewers 
of the same width, with the same inclination and the same run of 
water, the amount of deposit was reduced more than one-half.” 

THE SIZE OF TILES 

Is a matter of much importance, whether we regard the 
efficiency and durability of our work, or economy in 
completing it. The cost of tiles, and the freight of them, 
increase rapidly with their size, and it is, therefore, well 
to use the smallest that will effect the object in view. 
Tiles should be large enough, as a tirst proposition, to 
carry off, in a reasonable time, all the surplus water that 
may fall upon the land. Here, the English rules will not 
be safe for us; for, although England has many more rainy 
days than we have, yet we have, in general, a greater fall 
of rain—more inches of water from the clouds in the year. 
Instead of their eternal drizzle, we have thunder showers 
in Summer, and in Spring and Autumn north-east storms, 
when the windows of heaven are opened, and a deluge, 
except in duration, bursts upon us. Then, at the North, 
the Winter snows cover the fields until April, when they 
suddenly dissolve, often under heavy showers of rain, and 
planting time is at once upon us. It is desirable that all the 
snow and rain-water should pass through the soil into the 
drains, instead of overflowing the surface, so as to save the 
elements of fertility with which such water abounds, and 
also to prevent the washing of the soil. We recpiire, 
then, a greater capacity of drainage, larger tiles, than do 
the English, for our drains must do a greater work than 
theirs, and in less time. 



DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


131 


There are several other general considerations that 
should be noticed, before we attempt to define the particu¬ 
lar size for any location. Several small drains are usually 
discharged into one main drain. This main should have 
sufficient capacity to conduct all the water, that may be 
expected to enter it, and no more. If the small drains 
overflow it, the main will be liable to be burst, or the land 
about it filled with water, gushing from it at the joints ; 
especially, if the small drains come down a hill side, so as 
to give a great pressure, or head of water. On the other 
hand, if the main be larger than is necessary, there is the 
useless expense of larger tiles than were required. The 
capacity of pipes to convey water, depends, other things 
being equal, upon their size; but here the word size has 
a meaning which should be kept clearly in mind. 

The capacity of round water-pipes is in proportion to 
the squares of their diameters. 

A one-inch pipe carries one inch (circular, not square) 
of water, but a two-inch pipe carries not two inches only, 
but twice two, or four inches of water ; a three-inch pipe 
carries three times three, or nine inches ; and a four-inch 
pipe, sixteen inches. Thus we see, that under the same 
conditions as to fall, directness, smoothness, and the like, 
a four-inch pipe carries just four times as much water as 
a two-inch pipe. In fact, it will carry more than this 
proportion, because friction , which is an important ele¬ 
ment in all such calculations, is greater in proportion to 
the smaller size of the pipe. 

Velocity is another essential element to be noticed in 
determining the amount of water which may be dis¬ 
charged through a pipe of given diameter. Velocity, 
again, depends on several conditions. Water runs faster 
down a steep hill than down a gentle declivity. This is 
due to the weight of the water, or, in other words, to 
gravitation, and operates whether the water be at large on 



132 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the ground, or confined in a pipe, and it operates alike 
whether the water in a pipe fill its bore or not. 

But, again, the velocity of water in a pipe depends on 
the pressure, or head of water, behind it, and there is, per¬ 
haps, no definite limit to the quantity of water that may 
be forced through a given orifice. More water, for 
instance, is often forced through the pipe of a fire-engine in 
full play, in ten minutes, than would run through a jfipe 
of the same diameter, lying nearly level in the ground, in 
ten hours. 

In ordinary aqueducts, for supplying water, and not for 
drainage, it is desirable to have a high pressure upon the 
pipes to ensure a rapid flow ; but in drainage, a careful 
distinction must he made between velocity induced by grav¬ 
itation, and velocity induced by pressure. If induced by the 
former merely, the pipe through which the water is swiftly 
running, if not quite full, may still receive water at every 
joint, while, if the velocity be induced by pressure, the 
jfipe must be already full. It can then receive no more, 
and must lose water at the joints, and wet the land through 
which it passes, instead of draining it. 

So that although we should find that the mains might 
carry a vast quantity of water admitted by minor drains from 
high elevations, yet we should bear in mind, that drains 
when full can perform no ordinary office of drainage. If 
there is more than the pressure of four feet head of water 
behind ; the pipes, if they passed through a pond of water, 
at four feet deep, must lose and not receive water at the 
joints. 

The capacity of a pipe to convey water depends, then, 
not only on its size, but on its inclination or fall—a pipe 
running down a considerable descent having much greater 
capacity than one of the same size lying nearly level. 
This fact should be borne in mind even in laying single 
drains ; for it is obvious that if the drain lie along a sandy 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


133 


* 


plain, for instance, extending down a springy liill-side, 
and then, as is usually the case, along a lower plain 
again, to its outlet at some stream, it may collect as much 
water as will fill it before it reaches the lower level. Its 
stream rushes swiftly down the descent, and when it 
reaches the plain, there is not sufficient fall to carry it 
away by its natural gravitation. It will still rush onward 
to its outlet, urged by the pressure from behind ; but, with 
such pressure, it will, as we have seen, instead of draining 
the land, suffuse it with water. 

FRICTION, 

As has already been suggested, is an element that much 
interferes with exact calculations as to the relative capa¬ 
city of water-pipes of various dimensions, and this de¬ 
pends upon several circumstances, such as smoothness, and 
exactness of form, and directness. The smoother, the 
more regular in form, and the straighter the drain, the 
more water will it convey. Thus, in some recent English 
experiments, 

l ' it was found that, with pipes of the same diameter, exactitude of 
form was of more importance than smoothness of surface ; that glass 
pipes, which had a wavy surface, discharged less water, at the same 
inclinations, than Staffordshire stone-ware clay pipes, which were of 
perfectly exact construction. By passing pipes of the same clay—the 
common red clay—under a second pressure, obtained by a machine at 
an extra expense of about eighteen pence per thousand, whilst the 
pipe was half dry, very superior exactitude of form was obtained, and 
by means of this exactitude, and with nearly the same diameters, an 
increased discharge of water of one-fourth was effected within the same 
time. ,J 

So all sudden turns or angles increase friction and 
retard velocity, and thus lessen the capacity of the drain 
—a topic which may be more properly considered under 
the head of the friction of drains. 

“ On a large scale, it was found that when equal quantities of water 
were running direct, at a rate of 90 seconds, with a turn at right-angles, 




134 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


4 * 


the discharge was only effected in 140 seconds; whilst, with a turn or 
junction with a gentle curve, the discharge was effected in 100 seconds. 

We are indebted to Messrs. Shedd & Edson tor the fol¬ 
lowing valuable tables showing the capacity ot water- 
pipes, with the accompanying suggestions: 

U DISCHARGE OF W T ATER THROUGH PIPES. 

“ The following tables of discharge are founded on the experiments 
made by Mr. Smeaton, and have been compared with those by Henry 
Law, and with the rules of Weisbach and D’Aubuisson. The condi¬ 
tions under which such experiments are made may be so essentially 
different in each case, that few experiments give results coincident with 
each other, or with the deductions of theory : and in applying these 
tables to practice, it is quite likely that the discharge of a pipe of a cer¬ 
tain area, at a certain inclination, may be quite unlike the discharge 
found to be due to those conditions by this table, and that difference may 
be owing partly to greater or less roughness on the inside of the pipe, 
unequal flow of water through the joints into the pipe, crookedness of 
the pipes, want of accuracy in their being placed, so that the fall may 
not be uniform throughout, or the ends of the pipes may be shoved a 
little to one side, so that the continuity of the channel is partially 
broken; and, indeed, from various other causes, all of which may occur 
in any practical case, unless great care is taken to avoid it. and some 
of which may occur in almost any case. 

11 We have endeavored to so construct the tables that, in the ordinary 
practice of draining, the discharge given may approximate to the truth 
for a well laid drain, subject even to considerable friction. The exper-* 
iments of Mr. Smeaton, which we have adopted as the basis of these 
tables, gave a less quantity discharged, under certain conditions, than 
given under similar conditions by other tables. This result is probably 
due to a greater amount of friction in the pipes used by Smeaton. The 
curves of friction resemble, very nearly, parabolic curves, but are not 
quite so sharp near the origin. 

“ We propose, during the coming season, to institute some careful 
experiments, to ascertain the friction due to our own drain-pipe. Water 
can get into the drain-pipe very freely at the joints, as may be seen by 
a simple calculation. It is impossible to place the ends so closely to¬ 
gether, in laying, as to make a tight joint on account of roughness in 
the clay, twisting in burning, Ac.; and the opening thus made will usu¬ 
ally average about one-tenth of an inch on the whole circumference, 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


135 


which is, on the inside of a two-inch pipe, six inches—making six-tenths 
of a square inch opening for the entrance of water at each joint. 

“ In a lateral drain 200 feet long, the pipes being thirteen inches long, 
there will be 184 joints, each joint having an opening of six-tenth 
square inch area; in 184 joints there is an aggregate area of 110 
square inches; the area of the opening at the end of a two-inch pipe is 
about three inches; 110 square inches inlet to three inches outlet; 
thirty-seven times as much water can flow in as can flow out. There 
is, then, no need for the water to go through the pores of the pipe ; and 
the fact is, we think, quite fortunate, for the passage of water through 
the pores would in no case be sufficient to benefit the land to much ex¬ 
tent. We tried an experiment, by stopping one end of an ordinary 
drain-pipe and filling it with water. At the end of sixty-five hours, 
water still stood in the pipe three-fourtlis of an inch deep. About half 
the water first put into the pipe had run out at the end of twenty-four 
hours. If the pipe was stopped at both ends and plunged four feet 
deep in water, it would undoubtedly fill in a short time; but such a test 
is an unfair one, for no drain could be doing service, over which water 
could collect to the depth of four feet. 7 


li-INCH DRAIN-PIPE. 
Area : 1.76709 inches. 


Fall 

in 

100 feet . 

Velocity 
per second 
in feet. 

Discharge 
in gallons 
in 24 hours. 

Fall 

in 

100 feet. 

Velocity 
per second 
in feet. 

Discharge 
in gallons 
in 24 hours. 

ft . in . 

0.3 

0.71 

5630.87 

ft . in . 

5.3 

3.75 

29704.51 

0.6 

1.04 

8248.03 

5.6 

3.84 

30454.28 

0.9 

1.29 

10230.73 

5.9 

3.93 

31168.06 

1.0 

1.52 

12054.81 

6.0 

4.00 

31723.21 

1.3 

1.74 

13799.59 

6.3 

4.10 

32516.36 

1.6 

1.91 

15147.83 

6.6 

4.18 

33150.76 

1.9 

2.10 

16654.68 

6.9 

4.25 

33705.91 

2.0 

2.26 

17923.61 

7.0 

4.33 

34340.38 

2.3 

2.41 

19113.23 

7.3 

4.41 

34974.85 

2.6 

2.56 

20302.86 

7.6 

4.49 

35609.30 

2.9 

2.69 

21333.86 

7.9 

4.56 

36154.45 

3.0 

2.83 

22444.17 

8.0 

4.65 

36878.23 

3.3 

2.94 

23150.71 

8.3 

4.71 

37354.08 

3.6 

3.06 

24268.25 

8.6 

4.79 

37988.55 

3.9 

3.16 

25061.34 

8.9 

4.85 

38464.40 

4.0 

3.28 

26013.03 

9.0 

4.91 

38940.25 

4.3 

3.38 

26806.11 

9.3 

4.98 

39495.39 

4.6 

3.46 

27440.58 

9.6 

5.04 

39971.24 

4.9 

3.56 

28233.66 

9.9 

5.10 

40447.10 

5.0 

3.65 

28947.43 

10.0 

5.16 

40922.93 





















136 


FARM DRAINAGE 


9 - 

INCH DRAIN-PIPE. 

3 -INCII DRAIN-PIPE. 

Fall 

Velocity 

Discharge 

Fall 

Velocity 

Discharge 

in 

per second 

in gallons 

in 

per second 

in gallons 

100 feet. 

in feet. 

in 24 hours. 

100 feet. 

in feet. 

in 24 hours. 

ft . in . 

0.3 

0.79 

10575.4 

ft . in . 

0.3 

0.90 

24687.2 

0.6 

1.16 

15528.4 

0.6 

1.33 

36482.2 

0.9 

1.50 

20079.9 

0.9 

1.66 

45534.2 

1.0 

1.71 

22891.1 

1.0 

1.94 

53214.7 

1.3 

1.94 

25970.0 

1.3 

2.19 

60072.2 

1.6 

2.16 

28915.1 

1.6 

2.43 

66655.5 

1.9 

2.35 

31458.5 

1.9 

2.63 

72141.5 

2.0 

2.53 

33868.1 

2.0 

2.83 

77627.6 

2.3 

2.69 

36009.9 

2.3 

3.00 

82290.7 

2.6 

2.83 

37884.0 

2.6 

3.16 

86679.6 

2.9 

2.97 

39758.2 

2.9 

3.31 

90794.1 

3.0 

3.11 

41632.4 

3.0 

3.47 

95182.9 

3.3 

3.24 

43372.6 

3.3 

3.60 

98748.9 

3.6 

3.36 

44979.0 

3.6 

3.74 

102589.1 

3.9 

3.48 

46585.4 

3.9 

3.87 

106155.0 

4.0 

3.59 

48057.9 

4.0 

3.99 

109446.7 

4.3 

3.70 

49530.5 

4.3 

4.11 

112738.3 

4.6 

3.80 

50869.1 

4.6 

4.23 

116029.9 

4.9 

3.91 

52341.6 

4 . 9 ' 

4.34 

119047.3 

5.0 

4.02 

53814.1 

5.0 

4.46 

122338.9 

5.3 

4.11 

55018.9 

5.3 

4.57 

125356.2 

5.6 

4.22 

56491.5 

5.6 

4.68 

128373.5 

5 . 9 

4.31 

57696.3 

5.9 

4.78 

131116.6 

6.0 

4.40 

58901.1 

6.0 

4.89 

134133.9 

6.3 

4.49 

60105.9 

6.3 

4.98 

136602.6 

6 . 6 

4.58 

61309.7 

6 . 6 

5.08 

139345.6 

6.9 

4.66 

62381.6 

6.9 

5.18 

142088.7 

7.0 

4.74 

63452.5 

7.0 

5.27 

144557.4 

7.3 

4.83 

64667.3 

7.3 

5.37 

147306.4 

7.6 

4.91 

65728.3 

7.6 

5.46 

150069.1 

7.9 

4.99 

66799.2 

7.9 

5.55 

152237.8 

8.0 

5.07 

67870.1 

8.0 

5.64 

154706.6 

8.3 

5.15 

68941.0 

8.3 

5.73 

157175.3 

8.6 

5.23 

70011.9 

8.6 

5.82 

159644.0 

8.9 

5.31 

71082.8 

8.9 

5.91 

162112.7 

9.0 

5.38 

72019-9 

9.0 

5.99 

164313.2 

9.3 

5.46 

73090.9 

9.3 

6.07 

166501.6 

9.6 

5.53 

74027.9 

9.6 

6.16 

168970.3 

9.9 

5.60 

74965.0 

9.9 

6.24 

171164.7 

10.0 

5.67 

75902.0 

10.0 

6.32 

173359.1 





























in . 

.3 

,6 

.9 

.0 

.3 

.0 

.9 

.0 

.3 

.6 

.9 

.0 

.3 

re 

. 9 

.0 

.3 

.6 

.9 

. 0 

.3 

6 

9 

0 

3 

6 

9 

0 

3 

6 

9 

0 

3 

6 

9 

0 

3 . 

G 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES 


137 


INCH DRAIN-PIPE. 

5- 

INCH DRAIN-PIPE. 

Velocity 
per second 
in feet. 

Discharge 
in gallons 
in 24 hours. 

Fall 

in 

100 feet. 

Velocity 
per second 
in feet. 

Discharge 
in gallons 
in 24 hours. 

1.08 

43697.6 

ft . in . 

0.3 

1.13 

95841.2 

1.50 

60691.2 

0.6 

1.57 

138362.4 

1.83 

74043.2 

0.9 

1.90 

167442.6 

2.13 

86181.4 

1.0 

2.20 

193881.0 

2.38 

96296.6 

1.3 

2.45 

215912.9 

2.61 

105602.6 

1.6 

2.70 

237944.9 

2.81 

113694.8 

1.9 

2.90 

255569.5 

3.00 

121382.3 

2.0 

3.10 

273195.9 

3.19 

129089.9 

2.3 

3.29 

289940.1 

3.36 

135948-2 

2.6 

3.46 

304921.9 

3.53 

142826.5 

2.9 

3.64 

320784.9 

3.68 

148895.7 

3.0 

3.80 

334885.4 

3.82 

154560.2 

3.3 

3.96 

348974.8 

3.96 

160224.7 

3.6 

4.11 

362204.9 

4.10 

165889.2 

3.9 

4.26 

375424.1 

4.24 

171553.7 

4.0 

4.40 

387762.1 

4.87 

176813.6 

4.3 

4.52 

398337.5 

4.50 

182073.5 

4.6 

4.66 

410675.3 

4.62 

186928.3 

4.9 

4.78 

421250.6 

4.75 

192188.7 

5.0 

4.90 

430825.0 

4.86 

196639.4 

5.3 

5.02 

442401.3 

4.97 

201090.1 

5.6 

5.14 

452976.6 

5.09 

205945.3 

5.9 

5.25 

462670.6 

5.20 

210396.0 

6.0 

5.37 

473246.0 

5.30 

214442.1 

6.3 

5.49 

485820.4 

5.41 

218892.8 

6.6 

5.60 

493514.6 

5.51 

222938.8 

6.9 

5.70 

502327.4 

5.61 

226984.9 

7.0 

5.-80 

511140.2 

5.71 

231031.0 

7.3 

5.90 

520052.0 

5.81 

235077.1 

7.6 

6.00 

528766.5 

5.91 

239123.2 

7.9 

6.10 

537578.7 

6.01 

243169.2 

8.0 

6.20 

546391.5 

6.10 

246810.7 

8.3 

6.30 

555204.5 

6.19 

250452.2 

8.6 

6.40 

564017.0 

6.28 

253193.7 

8.9 

6.49 

571948.0 

6.37 

257735.2 

9.0 

6.58 

579880.0 

6.45 

260971.9 

9.3 

6.66 

586930.2 

6.54 

264603.1 

9.6 

6.75 

594861.4 

6.63 

268254.9 

9.9 

6.84 

602793.2 

6.71 

271491.8 

10.0 

6.93 

610723.8 



























138 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


8-inch drain-pipe. 


Area : 50.2640 inches. 


Fall 

in 

100 feet. 

Velocity 
per second 
in feet. 

Discharge 
in gallons 
in 24 hours. 

Fall 

in 

100 feet. 

Velocity 
per second 
in feet. 

Discharge 
in gallons 
in 24 hours. 

ft . in . 

0.3 

1.23 

277487.7 

ft . in . 

5.3 

5.35 

1206959.3 

0.6 

1.65 

372239.7 

5.6 

5.47 

1234031.3 

0.9 

2.01 

453455.7 

5 . 9 

5.59 

1261103.3 

1.0 

2.33 

525647.7 

6.0 

5.71 

1288175.3 

1.3 

2.60 

586559.7 

6.3 

5.83 

1315247.3 

1.6 

2.85 

642959.6 

6.6 

5.95 

1343838.9 

1.9 

3.08 

694847.6 

6.9 

6.07 

1369391.3 

2.0 

3.30 

744479.7 

7.0 

6.17 

1391951.2 

2.3 

3.50 

789599.6 

7.3 

6.27 

1414531.1 

2.6 

3.70 

844719.7 

7.6 

6.39 

1441583.2 

2.9 

3.89 

877583.5 

7.9 

6.50 

1466399.3 

3.0 

4.05 

913679.5 

8.0 

6.60 

1488959.2 

3.3 

4.21 

949775.6 

8.3 

6.70 

1511539.1 

3.6 

4.37 

971658.7 

8.6 

6.80 

1534099.0 

3.9 

4.53 

920447.4 

8.9 

6.90 

1556658.9 

4.0 

4.67 

1055551.4 

9.0 

7.00 

1579199.3 

4.3 

4.81 

1086135.4 

9.3 

7.10 

1601759.2 

4.6 

4.95 

1116718.7 

9.6 

7.20 

1624319.1 

4.9 

5.08 

1146047.4 

9.9 

7.29 

1644622.1 

5.0 

5.22 

1177631.3 

10.0 

7.38 

1664927.1 


HOW WATER ENTERS THE TILES. 

How water enters the tiles, is a question which all per¬ 
sons unaccustomed to the operation of tile-draining usually 
ask at the outset. In brief, it may be answered, that it 
enters both at the joints and through the pores of the 
burnt clay, but mostly at the joints. 

Mr. Parkes expresses the opinion, based upon careful 
observation, that five hundred times as much water enters 
at the crevices as through the pores of the tiles ! If this 
be so, we may as well, for all practical purposes, regard 
the water as all entering at the joints. In several experi¬ 
ments which we hav.e attempted, we have found the 
quantity of water that enters through the pores to be 
quite too small to be of much practical account. 

Tiles differ so much in- porosity, that it is difficult to 

















DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


139 


make experiments that can be satisfactory—soft-burnt tiles 
being, like pale bricks, quite pervious, and hard-burnt tiles 
being nearly or quite impervious. The amount of pressure 
upon the clay in moulding also affects the density and 
porosity of tiles. 

Water should enter at the bottom of the tiles, and not at 
the top. It is a well-known fact in draining, that the deep¬ 
est drain flows first and longest. A familiar illustration will 
make this point evident. If a cask or deep box be filled 
with sand, with one hole near the bottom and another half 
way to the top, these holes will represent the tiles in a 
drain. If water be poured into the sand, it will pass 
downward to the bottom of the vessel, and will not flow 
out of either hole till the sand be saturated up to the 
lower hole, and then it will flow out there. If, now, water 
be poured in faster than the lower hole can discharge it, 
the vessel will be filled higher, till it will run out at both 
holes. It is manifest, however, that it will first cease to 
flow from the upper orifice. There is in the soil a line of 
water, called the “ water-line,” or “ water-table and this, 
in drained land, is at about the level of the bottom of the 
tiles. As the rain falls it descends, as in the vessel; and 
as the water rises, it enters the tiles at the bottom, and 
never at the top, unless there is more than can pass out 
of the soil by the lower openings (the crevices and pores) 
into the tiles. It is well always to interrupt the direct 
descent of water by percolation from the surface to the top 
of the tiles, because, in passing so short a distance in the 
soil, the water is not sufficiently filtered, especially in soil 
so recently disturbed, but is likely to carry with it not 
only valuable elements of fertility, but also particles of 
sand, which may obstruct the drain. This is prevented 
by placing above the tiles (after they are covered a few 
inches with gravel, sand, or other porous soil) compact 
clay, if convenient. If not, a furrow each side of the 


140 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


drain, or a heaping-up of the soil over the drain, when 
finished, will turn aside the surface-water, and prevent 
such injury. 

In the estimates as to the area of the openings between 
pipes, it should be considered that the spaces between the 
pipes are not, in fact, clean openings of one-tenth of an 
inch, but are partially closed by earthy particles, and that 
water enters them by no means as rapidly as it would 
enter the clean pipes before they are covered. Although 
the rain-fall in England is much less in quantity and 
much more regular than in this country, yet it is believed 
that the use of two-inch pipes will be found abundantly 
sufficient for the admission and conveyance of any quan¬ 
tity of water that it may be necessary to carry off by 
drainage in common soils. In extraordinary cases, as 
where the land drained is a swamp, or reservoir for water 
which falls on the hills around, larger pipes must be used. 

In many places in England “ tops and bottoms,” or 
horse-shoe tiles, are still preferred by farmers, upon the 
idea that they admit the water more readily ; but their 
use is continued only by those who have never made trial 
of pipes. No scientific drainer uses any but pipes in 
England, and the million of acres well drained with them, 
is pretty good evidence of their sufficiency. In this coun¬ 
try, horse-shoe tiles have been much used in Western New 
York, and have been found to answer a good purpose ; and 
so it may be said of the sole-pipes. Indeed, it is believed 
that no instance is to be found on record in America of 
the failure of tile drains, from the inability of the water to 
gain admission at the joints. 

It may be interesting in this connection to state, that 
water is 815 heavier than air. Here is a drain at four feet 
depth in the ground, filled only with air, and open at the 
end so that the air can go out. Above this open space is 
four feet of earth saturated with water. What is the pres¬ 
sure of the water upon the tiles ? 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


141 


Mr. Thomas Arkell, in a communication to the Society 
of Arts, in England, says— 

11 The pressure due to a head of water four or five feet, may 
be imagined from the force with which water will come through 
the crevices of a hatch with that depth of water above it. Now, there 
is the same pressure of water to enter the vacuum in the pipe-drain as 
there is against the hatches, supposing the land to be full of water to 
the surface.” 

It is difficult to demonstrate the truth of this theory; 
but the same opinion has been expressed to the writer by 
persons of learning and of practical skill, based upon ob¬ 
servations as to the entrance of water into gas pipes, from 
which it is almost, if not quite, impossible to exclude it by 
the most perfect joints in iron jfipes. Whatever be the 
theory as to pressure, or the difficulties as to the water 
percolating through compact soils to the tiles, there will 
be no doubt left on the mind of any one, after one experi¬ 
ment tried in the field, that, in common cases, all the sur¬ 
plus water that reaches the tiles is freely admitted. A 
gentleman, who has commenced draining his farm, recently, 
in fiew Hampshire, expressed to the author his opinion, 
that tiles in his land admitted the water as freely as a hole 
of a similar size to the bore of the tile would admit it, if 
it could be kept open through the soil without the tile. 

DURABILITY OF TILE DRAINS. 

How long will they last ? This is the first and most im¬ 
portant question. Men, who have commenced with open 
ditches, and, having become disgusted with the defor¬ 
mity, the inconvenience, and the inefficiency of them, 
have then tried bushes, and boards, and turf, and found 
them, too, perishable ; and again have used stones, and 
after a time seen them fail, through obstructions caused 
by moles or frost—these men have the right to a well-con¬ 
sidered answer to this question. 




142 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


The foolish fellow in the Greek Reader, who, having 
heard that a crow would live a hundred years, purchased 
one to verify the saying, probably did not live long enough 
to ascertain that it was true. How long a properly laid 
tile-drain of hard-burnt tiles will endure, 'lias not been 
definitely ascertained, but it is believed that it will outlast 
the life of him who lays it. 

Ho tiles have been long enough laid in the United States 
to test this question by experience, and in England no fur¬ 
ther result seems to have been arrived at, than that the 
work is a permanent improvement. 

In another part of this treatise, may be found some ac¬ 
count of Land Drainage Companies, and of Government 
loans in aid of improvements by drainage in Great Bri¬ 
tain. One of these acts provides for a charge on the land 
for such improvements, to be paid in full in fifty years. 
That is to say, the expense of the drainage is an incum¬ 
brance like a mortgage on the land, at a certain rate of 
interest, and the tenant or occupant of the land, each year 
pays the interest and enough more to discharge the debt 
in just fifty years. Thus, it is assumed by the Govern¬ 
ment, that the improvement will last fifty years in its full 
operation, because the last year of the fifty pays precisely 
the same as every other year. 

It may therefore be considered as the settled conviction 
of all branches of the British government, and of all the 
best-informed, practical land-drainers in that country, that 

TILE-DRAINAGE WILL ENDURE FIFTY YEARS AT LEAST, if pro¬ 
perly executed. 

This is long enough to satisfy any American; for the 
migratory habits of our citizens, and the constant changes 
of cultivated fields into village and city lots, prevent our 
imagination even conceiving the idea that we or our pos¬ 
terity can remain for half a century upon the same farm. 

It is much easier, however, to lay tile-drains so that 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


143 


they will not be of use half of fifty years, than to make 
them permanent in their effect. Tile-drainage, it cannot 
be too much enforced, is an operation requiring great care 
and considerable skill—altogether more care and skill than 
our common laborers, or even most of our farmers, are 
accustomed to exercise in their farm operations. 

A blunder in draining, like the blunder of a physician, 
may be soon concealed by the grass that grows over it, 
but can never be corrected. Drainage is a new art in 
this country, and tile-making is a new art. Without 
good, hard-burnt tiles, no care or skill can make permanent 
work. 

Tile-drainage will endure so long as the tiles last, if the 
work be properly done. 

There is no reason why a tile should not last in the 
ground as long as a brick will last. Bricks will fall to 
pieces in the ground in a very short time if not hard- 
burnt, while hard-burnt bricks of good clay will last as 
long as granite. 

Tiles must be hard-burnt in order to endure. But this 
is not all. Drains fail from various other causes than the 
crumbling of the tiles. They are frequently obstructed by 
mice, moles, frogs, and vermin of all kinds, if not pro¬ 
tected at the outlet. They are often destroyed by the 
treading of cattle, and by the deposit of mud at the out¬ 
let, through insufficient care. They are liable to be filled 
with sand, through want of care in protecting the joints 
in laying, and through want of collars, and other means 
of keeping them in line. They are liable, too, to fill up by 
deposits of sand and the like, by being laid lower in some 
places than the parts nearer the outlet, so that the slack 
places catch and retain whatever is brought down, till the 
pipe is filled. 

Frost is an enemy which in this country we have to 


144 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


contend with, more than in any other, where tile-drainage 
has been much practiced. 

Upon all these points, remarks will be found under the 
appropriate heads; and these suggestions are repeated 
here, because we know that haste and want of skill are 
likely to do much injury to the cause which we advocate. 
Any work that requires only energy and progress, is safe 
in American hands; but cautious and slow operations are 
by no means to their taste. 

Dickens says, that on railways and coaches, wherever 
in England they say, “ All right,” the Americans use, in¬ 
stead, the phrase, “ Go ahead.” In tile-drainage, the 
motto, “ All right,” will be found far more safe than the 
motto, “ Go ahead.” 

Instances are given in England of drains laid with hand¬ 
made tiles, which have operated well for thirty years, and 
have not yet failed. 

Mr. Parkes informs us: “ That, about 1804, pipe-tiles 
made tapering, with one end entering the other, and two 
inches in the smallest point, were laid down in the park 
now possessed by Sir Thomas Wliichcote, Aswarby, Lin¬ 
colnshire, and that they still act well.” 

Stephens gives the following instance of the durability 
of bricks used in draining : 

“ Of the durability of common brick, when used in drains, there is a 
remarkable instance mentioned by Mr. George Guthrie, factor to the 
Earl of Stair or Calhoun, Wigtonshire. In the execution of modern 
draining on that estate, some brick-drains, on being intersected, emitted 
water very freely. According to documents which refer to these drains, 
it appears that they had been formed by the celebrated Marshal, Earl 
Stair, upwards oj a hundred years ago. They were found between the 
vegetable mould and the clay upon which it rested, between the c wet 
and the dij, as the country phiase has it, and about thirty-one inches 
below the surface. They presented two forms—one consisting of two 
bricks set asunder on edge, and the other two laid lengthways across 
them, leaving between them an opening of four inches square for water, 


DRAINAGE WITH TILES. 


145 


but having no soles. The bricks had not sunk in the least through the 
sandy clay bottom upon which they rested, as they were three inches 
broad. The other form was of two bricks laid side by side, as a sole, 
with two others built or laid on each other, at both sides, upon the solid 
ground, and covered with flat stones, the building being packed on each 
side of the drain with broken bricks.” 

In our chapter upon the “ Obstruction of Drains,” the 
various causes which operate against the permanency of 
drains, are more fully considered. 

7 


146 


FAJRM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER AIL 

DIRECTION, DISTANCE, AND DEPTH OF DRAINS. 

Direction of Drains. —Whence comes the Water?—Inclination of Strata.—• 
Drains across the Slope let Water out as well as Receive it.—Defence 
against Water from Higher Land.—Open Ditches.—Headers.—Silt-basins. 
Distance of Drains. —Depends on Soil, Depth, Climate, Prices, System.— 
Conclusions as to Distance. 

Depth of Drains. —Greatly Increases Cost.—Shallow Drains first tried in 
England.—10,000 Miles of Shallow Drains laid in Scotland by way of Edu¬ 
cation.—Drains must be below Subsoil plow, and Frost.—Effect of Frost 
on Tiles and Aqueducts. 

DIRECTION OF DRAINS. 

Whether drains should run up and down the slope of 
the hill, or directly across it, or in a diagonal line as a 
compromise between the first two, are questions which 
beginners in the art and mystery of drainage usually 
discuss with great zeal. It seems so plain to one man, at 
the first glance, that, in order to catch the water that is 
running down under the soil upon the subsoil, from the 
top of the hill to the bottom, you must cut a ditch across 
the current, that he sees no occasion to examine the ques¬ 
tion farther. Another, whose idea is, to catch the water 
in his drain before it rises to the surface, as it is passing 
up from below or running along on the subsoil, and keep 
it from rising higher than the bottom of his ditch, thinks 
it quite as obvious that the drains should run up and down 
the slope, that the water, once entering, may remain in the 
drain, going directly down hill to the outlet. A third 
hits on the Keythorpe system, and regarding the water as 


DIRECTION OF DRAINS. 


147 


flowing down the slope, under the soil, in certain natural 
channels in the subsoil, fancies they may best he cut off 
by drains, in the nature of mains, running diagonally across 
the slope. 

These different ideas of men, if examined, will be found 
to result mainly from their different notions of the under¬ 
ground circulation of water. In considering the Theory 
of Moisture, an attempt was made to suggest the different 
causes of the wetness of land. 

To drain land effectually, we must have a correct idea 
of the sources of the water that makes the particular field 
too wet; whether it falls from the clouds directly upon it; 
or whether it falls on land situated above it and sloping 
towards it, so that the water runs down, as upon a roof, 
from other fields or slopes to our own ; or whether it gushes 
up in springs which find vent in particular spots, and so 
is diffused through the.soil. 

If we have only to take care of the water that falls on 
our own field, from the clouds, that is quite a different 
matter from draining the whole adjoining region, and 
requires a different mode of operation. If your field is in 
the middle, or at the foot, of an undrained slope, from 
which the water runs on the surface over your land, or soaks 
through it toward some stream or swamp below, provi¬ 
sion must be made not only for drainage of your own 
field, but also for partial drainage of your neighbor’s above, 
or at least for defence against his surplus of water. 

The first, and leading idea to be kept in mind, as gov¬ 
erning this question of the direction of drains, is the simple 
fact that water runs dow7i hill • or, to express the fact more 
scientifically, water constantly seeks a lower level by the 
force of gravitation, and the whole object of drains is to 
open lower and still lower passages, into which the water 
may fall lower and lower until it is discharged from our 
field at a safe depth. 


148 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Water goes down, then, by its own weight, unless there 
is something through which it cannot readily pass, to 
bring it out at the surface. It will go into the drains, 
only because they are lower than the land drained. It 
will never go upward to find a drain, and it will go 
toward a drain the more readily, in proportion as the 
descent is more steep toward it. 

To decide properly what direction a drain should have, 
it is necessary, then, to have a definite and a correct idea 
as to what office the drain is to perform, what water is to 
fall into it, what land it is to drain. 

Suppose the general plan to be, to lay drains forty feet 
apart, and four feet deep over the field, and the cpiestion 
now to be determined, as to the direction , whether across, 
or up and down the slope, there being fall enough to ren¬ 
der either course practicable. The first point of inquiry 
is, what is expected of each drain ? How much and what 
land should it drain ? The general answer must be, forty 
feet breadth, either up and down the slope, or across it, 
according to the direction. But we must be more definite 
in our inquiry than even this. From what forty feet of 
land will the water fall into the drain ? Obviously, from 
some land in which the water is higher than the bottom 
of the drain. 

If, then, the drain run directly across the slope, most of 
the water that can fall into it, must come from the forty 
feet breadth of land between the drain in question, and 
the drain next above it. If the water were falling on an 
impervious surface, it would all run according to the 
slope of the surface, in which case, by the way, no drains 
but those across, could catch any of it except what fell 
upon the drains. But the whole theory of drainage is 
otherwise, and is based on the idea that we change the 
course of the underground flow, by drawing out the water 


DIRECTION OF DRAINS. 


149 


at given points by our drains; or, in other words, that 
“ the water seeks the lowest level in all directions.” 

Upon the best view the writer has been able to take of 
the two systems as to the direction of drains, there is but 
a very small advantage in theory in favor of either over 
the other, in soil which is homogeneous. But it must be 
borne in mind that homogeneous soil is rather the excep¬ 
tion in nature than the rule. 

Without undertaking to advance or defend any peculiar 
geological views of the structure of the earth, or of the 
depositions or formations that compose its surface, it may 
be said, that very often the first four feet of subsoil is com¬ 
posed of strata, or layers of earth of varying porosity. 

Beneath sand will be found a stratum of clay, or of com¬ 
pact or cemented gravel, and frequently these strata are 
numerous and thin. Indeed, if there be not some stratum 
below the soil, which impedes the passage of water, it 
would pass downward, and the land would need no arti¬ 
ficial drainage. Quite often it will be found that the dip 
or inclination of the various strata below the soil is differ¬ 
ent from that of the surface. 

The surface may have a considerable slope, while the 
lower strata lie nearly level, as if they had been cut 
through by artificial grading. 

The following figure from the Cyclopedia of Agriculture, 
with the explanation, fully illustrates this idea. 

u In many subsoils there are thin partings, or layers, of porous mate¬ 
rials, interspersed between the strata, which, although not of sufficient 
capacity to give rise to actual springs, yet exude sufficient water to 
indicate their presence. These partings occasionally crop out, and give 
rise to those damp spots, which are to be seen diversifying the surface 
of fields, when the drying breezes of Spring have begun to act upon 
them. In the following cut, the light lines represent such partings. 

“ Now, it will be evident, in draining such land, that if the drains 
be disposed in a direction transverse or oblique to the slope, it will often 


150 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


happen that the drains, no matter how skillfully planned, will not reach 
these partings at all, as at A. In this case, the water will continue 
to flow on in its accustomed channel, and discharge its waters at B. 



Fig. 34 —DBAIN8 ACKOS8 THE Slofe. 


u But again, even though it does reach these partings, as at C, a con¬ 
siderable portion of water will escape from the drain itself, and flow 
to the lower level of its old point of discharge at D. Whereas, a drain 
cut in the line of the slope, as from D to E, intersects all these partings, 
and furnishes an outlet to them at a lower level than their old ones.” 

These reasons are, it is true, applicable only to land of 
peculiar structure; but there are reasons for selecting the 
line of greatest fall for the direction of drains which are 
applicable to all lands alike. 

“ The line of the greatest fall is the only line in which 
a drain is relatively lower than the land on either side of 
it.” Whether we regard the surplus water as having 
recently fallen upon the held, and as being stopped near 
the surface by an impervious stratum, or as brought down 
on these strata from above, we have it to be disposed of 
as it rests upon this stratum, and is borne out by it to the 
surface. 

If there is a decided dip, or inclination, of this stratum 
outward down the slope, it is manifest that the water 
cannot pass backward to a cross drain higher up the slope. 
The course of the water must be downward upon the 
stratum on which it lies, and. so all between two cross 






DIRECTION OB’ DRAINS. 


151 


drains must pass to tlie lower one. The upper drain could 
take very little, if any, and the greater the inclination of 
this stratum, the less could flow backward. 

But in such case a drain down the slope gives to the 
water borne up by these strata, an outlet of the depth of 
the drain. If the drain be four feet deep, it cuts the 
water-bearing strata each at that depth, and takes off the 
water. 

In these cases, the different layers of clay or other im¬ 
pervious “ partings,” are like the steps of a huge stair¬ 
way, with the soil filling them up to a regular grade. 
The ditch cuts through these steps, letting the water that 
rests on them fall off at the ends, instead of running over 
the edges. Drains across the slope have been significantly 
termed “ mere catch-waters.” 

If we wish to use water to irrigate lands, we carefully 
conduct it along the surface across the slope, allowing it 
to flow over and to soak through the soil. If we desire to 
carry the same water off the field as speedily as possible, 
we should carry our surface ditch directly down the 
slope. 

Now, looking at the operation of drains across the slope, 
and supposing that each drain is draining the breadth 
next above it, we will suppose the drain to be running full 
of water. What is there to prevent the water from pass¬ 
ing out of that drain in its progress, at every point of the 
tiles, and so saturating the breadth below it ? Drain¬ 
pipes afford the same facility for water to soak out at 
the lower side, as to enter on the upper, and there is 
the same law of gravitation to operate in each case. Mr. 
Denton gives instances in which he has observed, where 
drains were carried across the slope, in Warwickshire, 
lines of moisture at a regular distance below the drains, 
lie could ascertain, he says, the depth of the drain itself, 
by taking the difference of height between the line of the 


152 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


drain at tlie surface, and that of the line of moisture be¬ 
neath it. He says again : 

“ I recently had an opportunity, in Scotland, of guaging the quantity 
of water traveling along an important drain carried obliquely across the 
fall, when I ascertained with certainty, that, although the land through 
which it passed was comparatively full of water, the drain actually lost 
more than it gained in a passage of several chains through it.” 

So far as authority goes, there seems, with the excep¬ 
tion of some advocates of the Keythorpe system, of which 
an account has been given, to be very little difference 
of opinion. Mr. Denton says : 

u With respect to the direction of drains, I believe very little differ¬ 
ence of opinion exists. All the most successful drainers concur in the 
line of the steepest descent, as essential to effective and economical 
drainage. Certain exceptions are recognized in the West of England ; 
but I believe it will be found, as practice extends in that quarter, that 
the exceptions have been allowed in error.” 

In another place, he says: 

11 The very general concurrence in the adoption of the line of greatest 
descent, as the proper course for the minor drains in soils free from 
rock, would almost lead me to declare this as an incontrovertible prin¬ 
ciple.” 

Allusion has been made to cases where we may have to 
defend ourselves from the flow of water from higher un¬ 
drained lands of our neighbor. To arrest the flow of mere 
surface water, an open ditch, or catch-water, is the most 
effectual, as well as the most obvious mode. There are 
many instances in Hew England, where lands upon the 
lowest slopes of hills are overflowed by water which fell 
high up upon the hill, and, after passing downward till 
arrested by rock formation, is borne out again to the sur¬ 
face, in such quantity as to produce, just at the foot of the 
hill, almost a swamp. This land is usually rich from the 
wash of the hills, but full of cold water. 


DIRECTION OF DRAINS. 


153 


To effect perfect drainage of a portion of this land, 
which we will suppose to be a gentle slope, the first object 
must be to cut off the flow of water upon or near the 
surface. An open ditch across the top would most cer¬ 
tainly effect this object, and it may be doubtful whether 
any other drain would be sufficient. This would depend 
upon the quantity of w T ater flowing down. If the quan¬ 
tity be very great at times, a part of it would be likely 
to flow across the top of an under-drain, from not having 
time to percolate downward into it. 

In all cases, it is advised, where our work stops upon a 
slope, to introduce a cross-drain, connecting the tops of all 
the minor-drains. This cross-drain is called a header. 
The object of it is to cut off* the water that may be pass¬ 
ing along in the subsoil down the slope, and which would 
otherwise be likely to pass downward between the system 
of drains to a considerable distance before finding them. 
If we suppose the ground saturated with water, and our 
drains running up the slope and stopping at 4 feet depth, 
with no header connecting them, they, in effect, stop 
against 4 feet head of water, and in order to drain the 
land as far up as they go, must not only take their fair 
]3roportion of water which lies between them, but must 
draw down this 4 feet head beyond them. This they can¬ 
not do, because the water from a higher source, with the 
aid of capillary attraction, and the friction or resistance 
met with in percolation, will keep up this head of water 
far above the drained level. 

In railway cuttings, and the like, we often see a slope 
of this kind cut through, without drying the land above 
the cutting; and if the slope be disposed in alternate 
layers of sand or gravel, and clay, the water will continue 
to flow out high up on the perpendicular bank. Even in 
porous soils of homogeneous character, it will be found 
that the head of water, if we may use the expression, is 

y* 


154 : 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


affected but a short distance by a drain across its flow. 
Indeed, the whole theory as to the distance of drains 
apart, rests upon the idea, that the limit to which drains 
may be expected effectually to operate, is at most but two 
or three rods. 

Whether, in a particular case, a header alone will be 
sufficient to cut off the flow of water from the higher 
land, or whether, in addition to the header, an open 
catch-water may be required, must depend upon the 
quantity of water likely to flow through or upon the land. 
An under-drain might be expected to absorb any moder¬ 
ate quantity of what may be termed drainage-water, but 
it cannot stop a river or mill-stream; and if the earth 
above the tiles be compact, even water flowing through 
the soil with rapidity, might pass across it. If there is 
reason to apprehend this, an open ditch might be added 
to the header; or, if this is not considered sufficiently 
scientific or in good taste, a tile-drain of sufficient capa¬ 
city may be laid, with the ditch above it carefully packed 
with small stones to the top of the ground. Such a drain 
would be likely to receive sand and other obstructing sub¬ 
stances, as well as a large amount of water, and should, 
for both reasons, be carried off independently of the small 
drains, which would thus be left to discharge their legiti¬ 
mate service. 

Where it is thought best to connect an open, or surface 
drain, with a covered drain, it will add much to its secu¬ 
rity against silt and other obstructions, to interpose a trap 
or silt-basin at the junction, and thus allow the water to 
pass off comparatively clean. Where, however, there is 
a large flow of water into a basin, it will be kept so much 
in motion as to carry along with it a large amount of 
earth, and thus endanger the drain below, unless it be 
very large. 


DISTANCE OF DRAINS. 


155 


DISTANCES APART, OR FREQUENCY OF DRAINS. 

The reader, who has studied carefully the rival systems 
of “deep drainage 5 ’ and “thorough drainage, 55 has seen 
that the distance of drains apart, is closely connected with 
that controversy. The greatest variety of opinion is ex¬ 
pressed by different writers as to the proper distances, 
ranging all the way from ten feet apart to seventy, or 
even more. 

Many English writers have ranged themselves on one 
side or the other of some sharp controversy as to the 
merits of some peculiar system. Some distinguished geol¬ 
ogist has discovered, or thinks he has, some new law of 
creation by which he can trace the underground currents 
of water; or some noble noble lord has “patronized 55 into 
notice some caprice of an aspiring engineer, and straight¬ 
way the kingdom is convulsed with contests to set up or 
cast down these idols. By careful observation, it is said, 
we may find “ sermons in stones, and good in everything ; 55 
and, standing aloof from all exciting controversies, we 
may often profit, not only by the science and wisdom of 
our brethren, but also by their errors and excesses. If, 
by the help of the successes and failures of our English 
neighbors, we shall succeed in attaining to their present 
standard of perfection in agriculture, we shall certainly 
make great advances upon our present position. 

As the distances of drains apart, depend manifestly on 
many circumstances, which may widely vary in the diver¬ 
sity of soil, climate, and cost of labor and materials to be 
found in the United States, it will be convenient to 
arrange our remarks on the subject under appropriate 
heads. 

DISTANCES DEPEND UPON" THE NATURE OF THE SOIL. 

Water runs readily through sand or gravel. In such 
soils it easily seeks and finds its level. If it be drawn 


156 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


out at one point, it tends towards that point from all 
directions. In a free, open sand, you may draw out all 
the water at one opening, almost as readily as from an 
open pond. 

Yet, even such sands may require draining. A body of 
sandy soil frequently lies not only upon clay, hut in a 
basin; so that, if the sand were removed, a pond wor 
remain. In such a case, a few deep drains, rightly placed, 

might be sufficient. This, however, is a case not often 
met with, though open, sandy soil upon clay is a common 

formation. 

Then there is the other extreme of compact clay, 
through which water seems scarcely to percolate at all. 
Yet it has water in it, that may probably soak out by the 
same process by which it soaked in. Very few soils, of 
even such as are called clay, are impervious to water, 
especially in the condition in which they are found in 
nature. To render them impervious, it is necessary to 
wet and stir them up, or, as it is termed, puddle them. 
Any soil, so far as it has been weathered—that is, ex¬ 
posed to air, water and frost—is permeable to water to 
a greater or less degree ; so that we may feel confident that 
the upper stratum of any soil, not constantly under water, 
will readily allow the water to pass through. 

And in considering the “ Drainage of Stiff Clays,” we 
shall see that the most obstinate clays are usually so 
affected by the operation of drainage, that they crack, and 
so open passages for the water to the drains. 

All gravels, black mud of swamps, and loamy soils of 
any kind, are readily drained. 

Occasionally, however—even in tracts of easy drainage, 
as a whole—deposits are found of some combinations with 
iron, so firmly cemented together, as to be almost im¬ 
penetrable with the pick-axe, and apparently impervious 


DISTANCE OF DRAINS. 


157 


to water. Exceptional cases of this nature must be care¬ 
fully sought for by the drainer. 

Whenever a wet spot is observed, seek for the cause, 
and be satisfied whether it is wet because a spring bursts 
up from the bottom; or because the subsoil is impervious, 
and will not allow the surface-water to pass downward. 
Ascertain carefully the cause of the evil, and then skill¬ 
fully doctor the disease, and not the symptoms merely. 
A careful attention to the theory of moisture, will go far 
to enable us properly to determine the requisite frequency 
of drains. 

DISTANCES DEPEND UPON THE DEPTH OF THE DRAINS. 

The relations of the depth and distance of drains will 
be more fully considered, in treating of the depth of drains. 
The idea that depth will compensate for frequency, in all 
cases, seems now to be abandoned. It is conceded that 
clay-soils, which readily absorb moisture, and yet are 
strongly retentive, cannot be drained with sufficient rapid¬ 
ity, or even thoroughness, by drains at any dejDth, unless 
they are also within certain distances. 

In a porous soil, as a general rule, the deeper the drain, 
the further it will draw. The tendency of water is to 
lie level in the soil; but capillary attraction and mechan¬ 
ical obstructions offer constant resistance to this tendency. 
The farther water has to jiass in the soil, the longer time, 
other things being equal, will be required for the passage. 
Therefore, although a single deep drain might, in ten days 
lower the water-line as much as two drains of the same 
depth, or, in other words, might draw the water all down 
to its own level, yet, it is quite evident that the two 
drains might do the work in less time—possibly, in five 
days. We have seen already the necessity of laying 
drains deep enough to be below the reach of the subsoil 
plow and below frost, so that, in the Northern States, the 


158 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


question of shallow drainage seems hardly debatable. 
Yet, if we adopt the conclusion that four feet is the least 
allowable depth, where an outfall can be found, there may 
be the question still, whether, in very open soils, a still 
greater depth may not be expedient, to be compensated 
by increased distance. 

DISTANCES DEPEND UPON CLIMATE. 

Climate includes the conditions of temperature and 
moisture, and so, necessarily, the seasons. In the chapter 
which treats of Rain , it will be seen that the quantity of 
rain which falls in the year is singularly various in differ¬ 
ent places. Even, in England, “ the annual average rain¬ 
fall of the w'ettest place in Cumberland is stated to be 141 
inches, while 19J inches may be taken as the average fall 
in Essex. In Cumberland, there are 210 days in the year 
in which rain falls, and in Chiswick, near London, 
but 124.” 

A reference to the tables in another place, wfill show us 
an infinite variety in the rain-fall at different points of 
our own country. 

If we expect, therefore, to furnish passage for but two 
feet of water in the year, our drains need not be so 
numerous as would be necessary to accommodate twice that 
quantity, unless, indeed, the time for its passage may be 
different; and this leads us to another point which should 
ever be kept in mind in New England—the necessity of 
quick drainage. The more violent storms and showers of 
our country, as compared with England, have been spoken 
of when considering The Size of Tiles. The sudden 
transition from Winter to Summer, from the breaking up 
of deep snows with the heavy falls of rain, to our brief 
and hasty planting time, requires that our system of 
drainage should be efficient, not only to take off large 
quantities of water, but to take them off in a very short 


DISTANCE OF DRAINS. 


159 


time. How rapidly water may be expected to pass off by 
drainage, is not made clear by writers on the subject. 

“ One inch in depth,” says an English writer, “ is a very 
heavy fall of rain in a day, and it generally takes two 
days for the water to drain fully from deep drained land.” 
One inch of water over an acre is calculated to be some¬ 
thing more than one hundred tons. This seems, in gross, 
to be a large amount, but we should expect that an inch, 
or even two inches of water, spread evenly over a field, 
would soon disappear from the surface; and if not pre¬ 
vented by some impervious obstruction, it must continue 
downward. 

It is said, on good authority, that, in England, the 
smallest sized pipes, if the fall be good, will be sufficiently 
large, at ordinary distances, to carry off all the surplus 
water. In the author’s own fields, where two-inch tiles 
are laid at four feet depth and fifty feet apart, in an open 
soil, they seem amply sufficient to relieve the ground of 
all surplus water from rain, in a very few days. Most of 
them have never ceased to run every day in the year, but 
as they are carried up into an undrained plain, they prob¬ 
ably convey much more water than falls upon the land in 
which they lie. 

So far as our own observation goes, their flow increases 
almost as soon as rain begins to fall, and subsides, after it 
ceases, about as soon as the water in the little river into 
which they lead, sinks back into its ordinary channel, the 
freshet in the drains and in the stream being nearly simul¬ 
taneous. Probably, two-inch pipes, at fifty feet distances, 
will carry off, with all desirable rapidity, any quantity of 
water that will ever fall, if the soil be such that the water 
can pass through it to the distance necessary to find the 
drains ; but it is equally probable that, in a compact clay 
soil, fifty feet distance is quite too great for sufficiently 


160 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


rapid drainage, because the water cannot get to the drains 

with sufficient rapidity. 

\ 

DISTANCES DEPEND UPON THE COMPARATIVE PRICES OF LABOR 

AND TILES. 

The fact, that the last foot of a four-foot drain costs as 
much labor as the first three feet, is shown in another 
chapter, and the deeper we go, the greater the compara¬ 
tive cost of the labor. With tiles at $10 per thousand, 
the cost of opening and filling a four-foot ditch is, in 
round numbers, by the rod, equal to twice the cost of the 
tiles. In porous soils, therefore, where depth may be 
made to compensate for greater distance, it is always a 
matter for careful estimate, whether we shall practice 
true economy by laying the tiles at great depths, or at. 
the smallest depth at which they will be safe from frost 
and the subsoil plow, and at shorter distances. The rule 
is manifest that, where labor is cheap and tiles are dear, 
it is true economy to dig deep and lay few tiles; and, 
where tiles are cheap and labor is dear, it is economy to 
make the number of drains, if possible, compensate for 
less depth. 

DISTANCES DEPEND UPON SYSTEM. 

While we would not lay down an arbitrary arrange¬ 
ment for any farm, except upon a particular examination, 
and while we would by no means advocate what has been 
called the gridiron system—of drains everywhere at equal 
depths and distances—yet some system is absolutely 
essential, in any operation that approaches to thorough 
drainage. 

If it be only desired to cut off some particular springs, 
or to assist Nature in some ravine or basin, a deep drain 
here and there may be expedient; but when any consider¬ 
able surface is to be drained, there can be no good work 
without a connected plan of operations. 


DISTANCE OF DRAINS. 


161 


Mains must be laid from the outfall, through the lowest 
parts ; and into the mains the smaller drains must be con¬ 
ducted, upon such a system as that there may be the 
proper fall or inclination throughout, and that the whole 
held shall be embraced. 

Again, a perfect jplan of the completed work, accurately 
drawn on paper, should always be preserved for future 
reference. JSTow it is manifest, that it is impossible to lay 
out a given held, with proper mains and small drains, 
dividing the fall as ecpially as practicable between the 
different parts of an undulating held, preserving a system 
throughout, by which, with the aid of a plan, any drain 
may at any time be traced, without making distances con¬ 
form somewhat to the system of the whole. 

It is easily demonstrable, too, that drains at right angles 
with the mains, and so parallel with each other, are the 
shortest possible drains in land that needs uniform drain¬ 
age. They take each a more uniform share of the water, 
and serve a greater breadth of soil than when laid at acute 
angles. While, therefore, it may be supposed that in par¬ 
ticular parts of the field, distances somewhat greater or 
less might be advisable, considered independently, yet in 
practice, it will be found best, usually, to pay becoming 
deference to order, “ Heaven’s first law,” and sacrifice 
something of the individual good, to the leading idea of 
the general welfare. 

In the letter of Mr. Denton, in another chapter, some 
remarks will be found upon the subject of which we are 
treating. The same gentleman has, in a published paper, 
illustrated the impossibility of strict adherence to any 
arbitrary rule in the distances or arrangement of drains, as 
follows: 

i: The wetness of land, which for distinction’s sake, I have called c the 
water of pressure, 7 like the water of springs, to which it is nearly allied, 
can be effectually and cheaply removed only by drains devised for, and 


162 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


devoted to the object. Appropriate deep drains at B B B, for instance, 
as indicated in the dark vertical lines, are found to do the service of 


C5 



many parallel drains, which as frequently miss, as they hit, those fur¬ 
rows, or c lips,’ in the horizontal out-crop of water-bearing strata which 
continue to exude wetness after the higher portions are dry. 

“ A consideration, too, of the varying inclinations of surface, of which 
instances will frequently occur in the same field, necessitates a depar¬ 
ture from uniformity, not in direction only, but in intervals between 
drains. Take, for instance, the ordinary case of a field, in which a 
comparatively flat space will intervene between quickly rising ground 
and the out-fall ditch. It is clear that the soak of the hill will pervade 
the soil of the lower ground, let the system of drainage adopted be what 
it may • and, therefore, supposing the soil of the hill and flat to be pre¬ 
cisely alike, the existence of bottom water in a greater quantity in the 
lower lands than in the higher, will call for a greater number of 
drains. It is found, too, that an independent discharge or relief of 
the water coming from the hill, at B, should always be provided, in 
order to avoid any impediment by the slower flow of the flatter drains. 

“ Experience shows that, with few exceptions, hollows, or ‘ slacks,’ 



observable on the surface, as at B B, have a corresponding undula¬ 
tion of subsoil and that any system which does not provide a direct 











DISTANCE OF DRAINS. 


163 


release for water, which would otherwise collect in and draw towards 
these spots, is imperfect and unsatisfactory. It is found to be much 
more safe to depend on relief drains, than on the cutting of drains 
sufficiently deep through the banks, at A A, to gain a fall at a regular 
inclination. 

u Still, in spite of experience, we often observe a disregard of these 
facts, even in works which are otherwise well executed to a depth of 
four feet, but fettered by methodical rules, and I feel compelled to 
remark, that it has often occurred to me, when I have observed with 
what diligent examination the rules of depth and distance have been 
tested, that if more attention had been paid to the source of injury, and 
to the mode of securing an effective and permanent discharge of the 
injurious water, much greater service would be done.” 

In conclusion, as to distances, we should advise great 
caution on the part of beginners in laying out their drains. 
Draining is too expensive a work to be carelessly or un- 
skillfully done. A mistake in locating drains too far 
apart, brings a failure to accomplish the end in view. A 
mistake in placing them too near, involves a great loss of 
labor and money. Consult, then, those whose experience 
lias given them knowledge, and pay to a professional en¬ 
gineer, or some other skillful person, a small amount for 
aid, which will probably save ten times as much in the 
end. We have placed our own drains in porous, though 
very wet soil, at fifty feet distances, which, in most soils, 
might be considered extremely wide. We are fully satis¬ 
fied that they would have drained the land as well at sixty 
feet, except in a few low places, where they could not be 
sunk four feet for want of fall. 

In most Hew England lands that require drainage, we 
believe that from 40 to 50 feet distances, with four feet 
dqpth, will prove sufficient. Upon stiff clays, we have no 
experience of our own of any value, although we have a 
field of the stiffest clay, drained last season at 40 feet distan¬ 
ces and four feet depth. In England, this would, probably, 
prove insufficient, and, perhaps, it will prove so here. 


164 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


One thing is certain, that, at present, there is little land 
in this country that will pay for drainage by hand labor, 
at the English distances in clay, of 16 or 20 feet. If our 
powerful Summer’s sun will not somehow compensate in 
part for distance, we must, upon our clays, await the coming 
of draining plows and steam. 

DEPTH OF DRAINS. 

Cheap and temporary expedients in agriculture are the 
characteristics of us Americans, who have abundance of 
land, a whole continent to cultivate, and comparatively 
few hands and small capital with which to do the work. 
We erect temporary houses and barns and fences, hoping 
to find time and means at a future day, to reconstruct 
them in a more thorough manner. We half cultivate our 
new lands, because land is cheaper than labor; and it pays 
best for the present, rather to rob our mother earth, than 
to give her labor for bread. 

The easy and cheap process in draining, is that into 
which we naturally fall. It is far easier and cheaper to 
dig shallow than deep drains, and, therefore, we shall not 
dig deep unless we see good reason to do so. If, however, 
we carefully study the subject, it will be manifest that 
superficial drainage is, in general, the result of superficial 
knowlege of the subject. 

Thorough-drainage does not belong to pioneer farming, 
nor to a cheap and temporary system. It involves capi¬ 
tal and labor, and demands skill and system. It cannot 
be patched up, like a brush fence, to answer the purpose, 
from year to year, but every tile must be placed where it 
will best perform its office for a generation. In England 
the rule and the habit in all things, is thoroughness and 
permanency; yet the first and greatest mistake there in 
drainage was shallowness, and it has required years of 




DEPTH OF DRAINS. 


165 


experiments, and millions of money, to correct that mis¬ 
take. If we commit the same folly, as we are very likely 
to do, we cannot claim even the originality of the blunder, 
and shall be guilty of the folly of pursuing the crooked 
paths of their exploration, instead of the straight highway 
which they have now established. To be sure, the con¬ 
troversy as to the depth of drains has by no means ceased 
in England, but the question is reduced to this, whether 
the least depth shall be three feet or four ; one party con¬ 
tending that for certain kinds of clay, a three-foot drain is 
as effectual as a four-foot drain, and that the least effectual 
depth should be used, because it is the cheapest; while 
the general opinion of the best scientific and practical 
men in the kingdom, has settled down upon four feet as 
the minimum depth, where the fall and other circum¬ 
stances render it practicable. At the same time, all admit 
that, in many cases, a greater depth than four feet is 
required by true economy. It may seem, at first, that a 
controversy, as to one additional foot in a system of drain¬ 
age, depends upon a very small point; but a little reflec¬ 
tion will show it to be worthy of careful consideration. 
Without going here into a nice calculation, it may be 
stated generally as an established fact, that the excava¬ 
tion of a ditch four feet deep, costs twice as much as 
that of a ditch three feet deep. Although this may not 
seem credible to one who has not considered the point, 
yet it will become more probable on examination, and 
very clear, when the actual digging is attempted. Ditches 
for tiles are always opened widest at top, with a gradual 
narrowing to near the bottom, where they should barely 
admit the tile. How, the addition of a foot to the depth, 
is not, as it would perhaps at first appear, merely the addi¬ 
tion of the lowest and narrowest foot, but rather of the 
topmost and widest foot. In other words, a four-foot ditch 
is precisely a three-foot ditch in size and form, with an 


166 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


additional foot on tlie top of it, and not a three-foot ditch 
deepened an additional foot. 

The lowest foot of a four-foot ditch is raised one foot 
higher, to get it upon the surface, than it the ditch were 
bnt three feet deep. In clays, and most other soils, the 
earth grows harder as we go deeper, and this considera¬ 
tion, in practice, will he found important. Again: the 
small amount of earth from a three-foot ditch, may lie 
conveniently on one hank near its edge, while the addi¬ 
tional mass from a deeper one must be thrown further; 
and then is to be added the labor of replacing the addi¬ 
tional quantity in filling up. 

On the whole, the point may be conceded, that the 
labor of opening and finishing a four-foot drain is double 
that of a three-foot drain. 

Without stopping here to estimate carefully the cost of 
excavation and the cost of tiles, it may be remarked, that, 
upon almost any estimate, the cost of labor, even in a 
three-foot drain in this country, yet far exceeds the cost 
of tiles : but, if w^e call them equal, then, if the addi¬ 
tional foot of depth costs as much as the first three feet, 
we have the cost of a four-foot tile-drain fifty per cent, 
more than that of a three-foot, drain. In other words, 200 
rods of four-foot drain will cost just as much as 300 rods 
of three-foot drain. This is, probably, as nearly accurate 
as any general estimate that can be made at present. The 
principles upon which the calculations depend, having 
been thus suggested, it will not be difficult to vary them 
so as to apply them to the varying prices of labor and 
tiles, and to the use of the plow or other implements pro¬ 
pelled by animals or steam, when applied to drainage in 
our country. 

The earliest experiments in thorough-drainage, in Eng¬ 
land, were at very small depths, two feet being, for a time, 
considered very deep, and large tracts were underlaid 


DEPTH OF DKAINS. 


167 


with tiles at a depth of eighteen, and even twelve inches. 
It is said, that 10,000 miles of drains, two feet deep and 
less, were laid in Scotland before it was found that this 
depth was not sufficient. Of course, the land thus treated 
was relieved of much water, and experimenters were often 
much gratified with their success ; but it may be safely said 
now, that there is no advocate known to the public, in 
England, for a system of drainage of less than three feet 
depth, and no one advocates a system of drainage of less 
than four feet deep, except upon some peculiar clays. 

The general principle seems well established, that depth 
will compensate for width ; or, in other words, that the 
deeper the drain, the farther it will draw. This principle, 
generally correct, is questioned when applied to peculiar 
clays only. As to them, all that is claimed is, that it is 
more economical to make the drains but three feet, because 
they must, even if deep, be near together—nobody doubt¬ 
ing, that if four feet deep or more, and near enough, they 
will drain the land. 

In speaking of clay soil, it should always be borne in 
mind, that clay is merely a relative term in agriculture. 
“ A clay in Scotland,” says Mr. Pusey, “ would be a loam 
in the South of England.” Professor Mapes, of our own 
country, in the Working Farmer , says, “ We are convinced, 
that, with thorough subsoil plowing, no clay soil exists in 
this country which might not be underdrained to a depth • 
of four feet with advantage.” 

There can be no doubt, that, with four-foot drains at 
proper distances, all soils, except some peculiar clays, may 
be drained, even without reference to the changes pro¬ 
duced in the mechanical structure of soil by the operation. 
There is no doubt, however, that all soils are, by the ad¬ 
mission of air, which must always take the place of the 
water drawn out, and by the percolation of water through 
them, rendered gradually more porous. Added to this, 


168 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the subsoil plow, which will be the follower of drainage, 
will break up the soil to considerable depth, and thus 
make it more permeable to moisture. But there is still 
another and more effective aid which Nature affords to the 
land-drainer, upon what might be otherwise impracticable 
clays. 

This topic deserves a careful and distinct consideration, 
which it will receive under the title of “ Drainage of Stiff 
Clays.” 

In discussing the subject of the depth of drains, we are 
not unmindful of the fact that, in this country, the leaders 
in the drainage movement, especially Messrs. Delafield, 
Yeomans, and Johnston, of New York, have achieved their 
truly striking results, by the use of tiles laid at from two 
and a half to three feet depth. On the “ Premium Farm” 
of It. J. Swan, of Bose Hill, near Geneva, it is stated 
that there are sixty-one miles of under-drains, laid from 
two and a half to three feet deep. That these lands thus 
drained have been changed in their character, from cold, 
wet, and unproductive wastes, in many cases, to fertile 
and productive fields of corn and wheat, sufficiently 
appears. Indeed, we all know of fields drained only with 
stone drains two feet deep, that have been reclaimed from 
wild grasses and rushes into excellent mowing fields. In 
England and in Scotland, as we have seen, thousands of 
miles of shallow drains were laid, and were for years 
quite satisfactory. These facts speak loudly in favor of 
drainage in general. The fact that shoal drains produce 
results so striking, is a stumbling-block in the progress of 
a more thorough system. It may seem like presumption 
to say to those to whom we are so much indebted for 
their public spirit, as well as private enterprise, that they 
have not drained deep enough for the greatest advantage 
in the end. It would seem that they should know their 
own farms and their own results better than others. We 


DEPTH OF DRAINS. 


169 


propose to state, with all fairness, the results of their ex¬ 
periments, and to detract nothing from the credit which 
is due to the pioneers in a great work. 

We cannot, however, against the overwhelming weight 
of authority, and against the reasons for deeper drainage, 
which, to us, seem so satisfactory, conclude, that even 
•three feet is, in general, deep enough for under-drains. 
Three-foot drains will produce striking results on almost 
any w^et lands, but four-foot drains will be more secure 
and durable, will give wider feeding-grounds to the roots, 
better filter the percolating water, warm and dry the land 
earlier in Spring, furnish a larger reservoir for heavy 
rains, and, indeed, more effectually perform every office 
of drains. 

In reviewing our somewhat minute discussion of this 
essential point—the proper depth of drains—certain pro¬ 
positions may be laid down with considerable assurance. 

TILES MUST BE LAID BELOW THE REACH OF THE SUBSOIL 

PLOW. 

Let no man imagine that he shall never use the subsoil 
plow; for so surely as he has become already so much 
alive to improvement, as to thorough-drain, so surely will 
he next complete the work thus begun, by subsoiling his 
land. 

The subsoil plow follows in the furrow of another 
plow, and if the forward plow turn a furrow one foot 
deep, the subsoil may be run two feet more, making three 
feet in all. Ordinarily, the subsoil plow is run only to 
the depth of 18 or 20 inches ; but if the intention were 
to run it no deeper than that, it would be liable to dip 
much deeper occasionally, as it came suddenly upon the 
soft places above the drains. The tiles should lie far 
enough below the deepest path of the subsoil plow, not 
to be at all disturbed by its pressure in passing over the 
8 


170 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


drains. It is by no means improbable that fields that 
liave already been drained in this country, may be, in the 
lifetime of their present occirpants, plowed and subsoiled 
by means of steam-power, and stirred to as great a depth 
as shall be found at all desirable. But, in the present 
mode of using the subsoil plow on land free from stones, a 
depth less than three and a half or four feet would hardly 
be safe for the depth of tile-drains. 

TILES MUST BE LAID BELOW FROST. 

This is a point upon which we must decide for our¬ 
selves. There is no country where drainage is practiced, 
where the thermometer sinks, as in almost every 
Winter it does in Hew England, to 20° below zero (Fah¬ 
renheit). 

All writers seem to assume that tile-drains must be in¬ 
jured by frost. What the effect of frost upon them is 
supposed to be, does not seem very clear. If filled with 
water, and frozen, they must, of course, burst by the 
expansion of the water in freezing; but it would prob¬ 
ably rarely happen, that drainage-water, running in cold 
weather, could come from other than deep sources, and 
it must then be considerably above the freezing point. 
Still, we know that aqueduct pipes do freeze at consider¬ 
able depths, though supplied from deep springs. Neither 
these nor gas-pipes are, in our New England towns, safe 
below frost, unless laid four feet below the surface; 
and instances occur where they freeze at a much greater 
depth, usually, however, under the beaten paths of streets, 
or in exposed positions, where the snow is blown away. In 
such places, the earth sometimes freezes solid to the depth 
of even six feet. It will be suggested at once that our 
fields, and especially our wet lands, do not freeze so deep, 
and this is true ; but it must be borne in mind, that the 
very reason why our wet lands do not freeze deeper, may 


DEPTH OF DRAIN'S. 


171 


be, that they are filled with the very spring-water which 
makes them cold in Summer, indeed, but is warmer than 
the air in Winter, and so keeps out the frost. Drained 
lands will freeze deeper than undrained lands, and the 
farmer must be vigilant upon this point, or he may have 
his work ruined in a single Winter. 

We are aware, that upon this, as every other point, as¬ 
certained facts may seem strangely to conflict. In the 
town of Lancaster, among the mountains in the coldest 
part of Hew Hampshire, many of the houses and barns 
of the village are supplied with water brought in aque¬ 
ducts from the hills. We observed that the logs which 
form the conduit are, in many places, exposed to view on 
the surface of the ground, sometimes partly covered with 
earth, but generally very little protected. There has not 
been a Winter, perhaps in a half century, wdien the ther¬ 
mometer has not at times been 10° below Zero, and often 
it is even lower than that. Upon particular inquiry, we 
ascertained that very little inconvenience is experienced 
there from the freezing of the pipes. The water is drawn 
from deep springs in the mountains, and fills the pipes of 
from one to two-inch bore, passing usually not more than 
bne or two hundred rods before it is discharged, and its 
w^armth is sufficient, with the help of its usual snow cover¬ 
ing, to protect it from the frost. 

We have upon our own premises an aqueduct, which 
supplies a cattle-yard, which has never been covered more 
than two feet deep, and has never frozen in the nine years 
of its use. We should not, therefore, apprehend much 
danger from the freezing of pipes, even at shallow depths, 
if they carry all the Winter a considerable stream of 
spring-water ; but in pipes which take merely the surface 
water that passes into them by percolation, we should ex¬ 
pect little or no aid from the water in preventing frost. 
The water filtering downward in Winter must be nearly 


172 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


at the freezing point; and the pipes may be filled with 
solid ice, by the freezing of a very small quantity as it 
enters them. 

Neither hard-burnt bricks nor hard-burnt tiles will 
crumble by mere exposure to the Winter weather above 
ground, though soft bricks or tiles will scarcely endure a 
single hard frost. Too much stress cannot be laid upon 
the importance of using hard-burnt tiles only, as the 
failure of a single tile may work extensive mischief. 
Writers seem to assume, that the freezing of the ground 
about the drains will displace the tiles, and so destroy their 
continuity, and this may be so; though we find no evi¬ 
dence, perhaps, that at three or four feet, there is any dis¬ 
turbance of the soil by freezing. We dig into clay, or 
into our strong subsoils, and find the earth, at three feet 
deep, as solid and undisturbed as at twice that depth, and 
no indication that the frost has touched it, though it has 
felt the grip of his icy fingers every year since the Flood. 
With these suggestions for warning. and for encourage¬ 
ment, the subject must be left to the sound judgment of 
the farmer or engineer upon each farm, to make the mat¬ 
ter so safe, that the owner need not have an anxious 
thought, as he wakes in a howling Winter night, lest his 
drains should be freezing. 

Finally, in view of the various considerations that have 
been suggested, as well as of the almost uniform authority 
of the ablest writers and practical men, it is safe to con¬ 
clude, that, in general, in this country, wherever sufficient 
outfall can be had , four feet above the top of the tiles should 
be the minimum depth of drains. 


ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 


173 


CHAPTER VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 

Necessity of System.—What Fall is Necessary.—American Examples.—Out¬ 
lets.—Wells and Relief-Pipes.—Peep holes.—How to secure Outlets.—Gate 
to Exclude Back-Water.—Gratings and Screens to keep out Frogs, Snakes, 
Moles, &c.—Mains, Submains, and Minors, how placed.—Capacity of Pipes. 
—Mains of Two Tiles.—Junction of Drains.—Effect of Curves and Angles 
on Currents.—Branch Pipes.—Draining into Wells or Swallow Holes.— 
Letter from Mr. Denton. 

As every act is, or should be, a part of a great plan of 
life, so every stake that is set, and every line laid in the 
field, should have relation not only to general principles, 
but also to some comprehensive plan of operations. 

Assuming, then, that the principles advocated in this 
treatise are adopted as to the details, that the depth pre¬ 
ferred is not less than four feet—that the direction preferred 
is up and down the slope—that the distance apart may 
range from fifteen to sixty feet, and more in some cases, 
according to the depth of drains and the nature of the soil 
—that no tiles smaller than one and a half inch bore will 
be used, and none less than two inches except for the first 
one hundred yards, there still remains the application of 
all these principles to the particular work in hand. With 
the hope of assisting the deliberations of the farmer on 
this point, some additional suggestions will be made under 
appropriate heads. 

ARRANGEMENT MUST HAVE REFERENCE TO SYSTEM. 

The absolute necessity of some regularity of plan in our 
work, must be manifest. Without system, we can never, 



174 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


in the outset, estimate the cost of our operation; we can 
never proportion our tiles to the quantity of water that 
will pass through them; we can never find the drains 
afterwards, or form a correct opinion of the cause of any 
failure that may await us. 

We prefer, in general, where practicable, parallel lines 
for our minor drains, at right angles with the mains, 
because this is the simplest and most systematic arrange¬ 
ment ; but the natural ravines or water-courses in fields, 
seldom run parallel with each other, or at right angles 
with the slope of the hills, so that regular work like this, 
can rarely be accomplished. 

If the earth were constructed of regular slopes, or plains 
of uniform character, we could easily apply to it all our 
rules ; but, broken as it is into hills and valleys, filled with 
stones here, with a bank of clay there, and a sand-pit close 
by, we are obliged to sacrifice to general convenience, 
often, some special abstract rule. 

We prefer to run drains up and down the slope; but if 
the field be filled with undulations, or hills with various 
slopes, we may often find it expedient, for the sake of 
system, to vary this course. 

If the question were only as to one single drain, we 
could adjust it so as to conform to our perfect ideal; but 
as each drain is, as it were, an artery in a complicated 
system, which must run through and affect every part of 
it, all must be located with reference to every other, and 
to the general effect. 

Keeping in mind, then, the importance of some regular 
system that shall include the whole field of operation, the 
work should be laid out, with as near a conformity to 
established principles as circumstances will permit. 

ARRANGEMENT MUST HAVE REFERENCE TO THE FALL. 

In considering what fall is necessary, and what is desir¬ 
able, we have seen, that although a very slight inclination 


ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 


175 


may carry off water, yet a proportionally larger drain 
is necessary as tlie fall decreases, because tlie water runs 
slower. 

“ It is surprising,” says Stephens, “what a small descent is required 
for the flow of water in a well-constructed duct. People frequently 
complain that they cannot find sufficient fall to carry off the water from 
the drains. There are few situations where a sufficient fall cannot be 
found if due pains are exercised. It has been found in practice, that a 
water-course thirty feet wide and six feet deep, giving a transverse sec¬ 
tional area of one hundred and eighty square feet, will discharge three 
hundred cubic yards of water per minute, and will flow at the rate of 
one mile per hour, with a fall of no more than six inches per mile.' 1 ' 

Messrs. Shedd and Edson, of Boston, have superintended 
some drainage words in Milton, Mass., where, after obtain- 
ing permission to drain through the land of an adjacent 
owner, not interested in the operation, they could obtain 
but three inches fall in one hundred feet, or a half inch to 
the rod, for three quarters of a mile, and this only by 
blasting the ledges at the outlet. This fall, however, 
proves sufficient for perfect drainage, and by their skill, a 
very unliealthful swamp has been rendered fit for gardens 
and building-lots. In another instance, in Dorchester, 
Mass., Mr. Shedd informs us that in one thousand feet, 
they could obtain only a fall of two inches for their main, 
and this, by nice adjustment, he expects to mak$ sufficient. 
In another instance, he has found a fall of two and a half 
inches in one hundred feet, in an open paved drain to be 
effectual. 

It is certainly advisable always to divide the fall as even 
as possible throughout the drains, yet this will be found a 
difficult rule to follow. Yery often we have a space of 
nearly level ground to pass through to our outfall; and, 
usually, the mains, in order that the minor drains may be 
carried into them from both sides, must follow up the na¬ 
tural valleys in the field, thus controlling, in a great mea- 


176 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


sure, our cnoice as to the fall. We are, in fact, often com¬ 
pelled to use the natural fall nearly as we find it. 

It is thought advisable to have the mains from three to 
six inches lower than the drains discharging into them, so 
that there may be no obstruction in the minor drains by 
the backing up of water, and the consequent deposition of 
sand or other obstructing substances. Wherever one 
stream flows into another, there must be more or less in¬ 
terruption of the course of each. If the water from the 
minors enters the main with a quick fall, the danger of 
obstruction in the minor, at least, is much lessened. A 
frequent cause of partial failure of drains,.is their not 
having been laid with a regular inclination. If, instead 
of a gradual and uniform fall, there should be a slight 
rising in the bed of a drain, the descending water will be 
interrupted there till it accumulate so high as to be above 
the level of the rising. At this point, therefore, the water 
must have a tendency to press out of the drains, and will 
deposit whatever particles of sand or other earthy matter 
it may bring down. 

Drains must, therefore, be so arranged, that in'cutting 
them, their beds may be as nearly as possible, straight, or, 
at least, have a constant, if not a regular and equal fall. 

ARRANGEMENT MUST HAVE REFERENCE TO THE OUTLET. 

All agree that it is best to have but few general outlets. 
“ In the whole process of draining,” says an engineer of 
experience, “ there is nothing so desirable as permanent 
and substantial work at the point of discharge.” The out¬ 
let is the place, of all others, where obstruction is most 
likely to occur. Everywhere else the work is protected 
by the earth above it, but here it is exposed to the action 
of frost, to cattle, to mischievous boys, to reptiles, as well 
as to the obstructing deposits which are discharged from 
the drains themselves. In regular work, under the direc- 


OUTLETS. 


177 


tion of engineers, iron pipes, with swing gratings set in 
masonry, are used, to protect permanently this important 
part of the system of drainage. 

It may often be convenient to run parallel drains down 
a slope, bringing each out into an open ditch, or at the 
bottom of some bank, thus making a separate outlet for 
each. This practice, however, is strongly deprecated. 
These numerous outlets cannot be well protected without 
great cost ; they will be forgotten, or, at least, neglected, 
and the work will fail. 

Regarding this point, of few and well-secured outlets, as 
of great importance, the arrangement of all the drains 
must have reference to it. When drains are brought 
down a slope, as just suggested, let them, instead of dis¬ 
charging separately, be crossed, near the foot of the slope, 
by a submain running a little diagonally so as to secure 
sufficient fall, and so carried into a main, or discharged 
at a single outlet. 

It may be objected, that by thus uniting the whole sys¬ 
tem, and discharging the water at one point, there may be 
difficulty in ascertaining by inspection, whether any of the 
drains are obstructed, or whether all are performing their 
appropriate work. There is prudence and good sense in 
this suggestion, and the objection may be obviated by 
placing wells , or “ peep-holes,” at proper intervals, in 
which the flow of the water at various points may be ob¬ 
served. On the subject of wells and peep-holes, the reader 
will find in another chapter a more particular description 
of their construction and usefulness. 

The position of the outlet must, evidently, be at a point 
sufficiently low to receive all the water of the field ; or, 
in other words, it must be the lowest point of the work. 
It will be fortunate, too, if the outlet can be at the same 
time high enough to be at all times above the back¬ 
water of the stream, or pond, or marsh, into which it 
8 * 


178 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


empties; and high enough, too, to be protected by solid 
earth about it. In any case, great care should be taken 
to make the outlet secure and permanent. The - process 
of thorough-drainage is expensive, and will only repay 
cost, upon the idea that it is permanent—that once well 
done, it is done forever. The tiles may be expected to 
operate well, for a lifetime; and the outlet, the only exposed 
portion of the work, should be constructed to endure as 
long as the rest. 

It is true that this portion of the work may be reached 
and repaired more conveniently than the tiles themselves ; 
but it must be remembered that the decay of the outlet 
obstructs the flow of the water, produces a general stag¬ 
nation throughout the drains, and so may cause their 
permanent obstruction at various points, hard to be ascer¬ 
tained, and difficult to be reached. Considering our lia¬ 
bility to neglect such things as perish by a gradual decay, 
as well as the many accidental injuries to which the out¬ 
let is exposed, there is no security but in a solid and per¬ 
manent structure at the first. 

To illustrate the importance attached to this point in 
England, as well as to indicate the best mode of secur¬ 
ing the outlet, the drawings below have been taken from 
a pamphlet by Mr. Denton. Fig. 37 represents the mode 
of constructing the common small outlets of field drainage. 



Fig. 37.— Small Outlet. 


The distinguished engineer, of whose labors w T e have so 
























































OUTLETS. 


179 


freely availed ourselves, remarks as follows upon tlie 
subject: 

u Too many outlets are objectionable, on account of the labor of their 
maintenance; too few are objectionable, because they can only exist 
where there are mains of excessive length. A limit of twenty acres 
to an outlet, resulting in an average of, perhaps, fourteen acres, will 
appear, by the practices of the best drainers, to be about the proper 
thing. If a shilling an acre is reserved for fixing the outlets, which 
should be iron pipes , with swing gratings , in masonry, very substantial 
work may be done.” 

Figures 38 and 39 represent the elevation and section 
of larger outlets, used in more extensive works. 



It is almost essential to tlie efficiency of drains, that 
there be fall enough beyond the outlet to allow of the 
quick flow of the water discharged. At the outlet, must 
be deposited whatever earth is brought down by the 
drains; and, in many cases, the outlet must be at a swamp 
or pond. If no decided fall can be obtained at the outlet, 

























180 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


there must be care to provide and keep an open ditch or 
passage, so that the drainage-water may not be dammed 
back in the drains. It is advised, even, to follow down the 
bank of a stream or river, so as to obtain sufficient fall, 
rather than to have the outlet flooded, or back-water in 



the drains. Still, there may be cases where it will be im¬ 
possible to have an outlet that shall be always above the 
level of the river or pond which may receive the drain¬ 
age-water. If the outlet must be so situated as to be at 
times overflowed, great care should be taken to excavate 
a place at the outlet, into which any deposits brought 
down by the drain, may fall. If the outlet be level with 
the ground beyond it, the smallest quantity of earth will 
operate as a dam to keep back the water. Therefore, at 
the outlet, in such cases, a small well of brick or stone¬ 
work should be constructed, into which the water should 
pour. There, even if the water stand above the outlet, 




















































OUTLETS. 


181 


will be deposited the earth brought along in the drain. 
This well must at times, when the w T ater is low, be 
cleared of its contents, and kept ready for its work. 

The effect of back-water in drains cannot ordinarily be 
injurious, except as it raises the w T ater higher in the land, 
and occasions deposits of earthy matter, and so obstructs 
the drains. We have in mind now, the common case of 
w^ater temporarily raised, by Winter ilowage or by Summer 
freshets. 

It should be remembered that even when the outlet is 
under water, if there is any current in the stream into 
which the drain empties, there must be some current in 
the drain also ; and even if the drain discharge into a still 
pond, there must be a current greater or less, as water 
from a level higher than the surface of the pond, presses 
into the drains. Generally, then, under the most unfavor¬ 
able circumstances, we may expect to have some flow of 

water through the pipes, and rarely an 
utter stagnation. If, then, the tiles be 
carefully laid, so as to admit only well- 
filtered water, there can be but little 
deposit in the drain; and a temporary 
stagnation, even, will not injure them, 
and a trifling flow will keep them clean. 

Much w r ill depend, as to the obstruc¬ 
tion of drains, in this, and indeed in all 
cases, upon the internal smoothness, and 
upon the nice adjustment of the pipes. 
In case of the drainage of marshes, and 
other lands subject to sudden flood, a 
flap, or gate, is used to exclude the 
water of flowage, until counterbalanced 
by the drain age-water in the pipes. 






GralmtC 


sms r i id Ha 


swing 




Fig. 40. — Outlet Pipe 
with Flap to Exclude 
Flood-water. 


yy e are (puite sure that it is not in us a v oik of supeieio- 
gation to urge upon our farmers the impoitanceof caielul 


























V 


182 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


attention to this matter of outlets. This is one of that 
class of things which will never be attended to, if left to 
be daily watched. We Americans have so much work to 
do, that we have no time to be careful and watchful. If 
a child fall into the tire, we take time to snatch him 
out. If a sheep or ox get mired in a ditch, we leave 
our other business, and fly to the rescue. Even if the 
cows break into the corn, all hands of us, men and boys 
and dogs, leave hoeing or haying, and drive them out. 
And, by the way, the frequency with which most of us 
have had occasion to leave important labors to drive back 
unruly cattle, rendered lawless by neglect of our fences, 
w r ell illustrates a national characteristic. We are earnest, 
industrious, and intent on doing . We can look forward 
to accomplish any labor, however difficult, but lack the 
conservatism which preserves the fruit of our labors—the 
“old fogy ism 5 5 which, puts on its spectacles with most 
careful adjustment, after wiping the glasses for a clear 
sight, and at stated periods, revises its affairs to see if some 
screw has not worked loose. A steward on a large estate, 
or a corporation agent, paid for inspecting and superin¬ 
tending, may be relied upon to examine his drainage 
works, and maintain them in repair ; but no farmer in 
this country, who labors with his own hands, has time 
even for this most essential duty. His policy is, to do his 
work now, while he is intent upon it, and not trust to fu¬ 
ture watchfulness. 

We speak from personal experience in this matter of 
outfalls. Our first drains ran down into a swamp, and 
the fall was so slight, that the mains were laid as low 
as possible, sor that at every freshet they are overflowed. 
We have many times, each season, been compelled to go 
down, with spade and hoe, and clear away the mud which 
has been trodden up by cattle around the outlet. Although 
a small river flows through the pasture, the cows find 


I 


OUTLETS. 


183 


amusement, or better water, about these drains, and keep 
us in constant apprehension of a total obstruction of our 
works. We propose to relieve ourself of this care, by 
connecting the drains together, and building one or more 
reliable outlets. 

GRATINGS OR SCREENS AT THE OUTLET. 

There are many species of “ vermin/ 5 both “ creeping 
things” and “ slimy things, that crawl with legs,” which 
seem to imagine that drains are constructed for their 
especial accommodations. In dry times, it is a favorite 
amusement of moles and mice and snakes, to explore the 
devious passages thus fitted up for them, and entering at 
the capacious open front door^ they never suspect that the 
spacious corridors lead to no apartments, that their ac¬ 
commodations, as they progress, grow “ fine by degrees 
and beautifully less, 5 ’ and that these are houses with no 
back doors, or even convenient places for turning about 
for a retreat. Unlike the road to Hades, the descent to 
which is easy, here the ascent is inviting ; though, alike in 
both cases, “revocare gradum , hoc opus liic labor est .” 
They persevere upward and onward till they come, in more 
senses than one, to “an untimely end.” Perhaps stuck fast 
in a small pipe tile, they die a nightmare death; or, per¬ 
haps overtaken by a shower, of the effect of which, in 
their ignorance of the scientific principles of drainage, 
they had no conception, they are drowned before they have 
time for deliverance from the straight in which they find 
themselves, and so are left, as the poet strikingly expresses 
it, “ to lie in cold obstruction and to rot.” 

In cold weather, water from the drains is warmer than 
the open ditch, and the poor frogs, reluctant to submit to 
the law of Nature which requires them to seek refuge in 
mud and oblivious sleep, in Winter, gather round the 
outfalls, as they do about springs, to bask in the warmth 


184 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


of the running water. If the flow is small, they leap up 
into the pipe, and follow its course upward. In Summer, 
the drains furnish for them a cool and shady retreat from 
the mid-day sun, and they may be seen in single file by 
scores, at the approach of an intruding footstep, scrambling 
up the pipe. Dying in this way, affects these creatures, 
as “ sighing and grief” did Falstaff, “ blows them up like 
a bladder ; ” and, like Sampson, they do more mischief in 
their death, than in all their life together. They swell 
up, and stop the water entirely, or partially dam it, so 
that the effect of the work is impaired. 

To prevent injuries from this source, there should be, 
at every outlet, a grating or screen of cast iron, or of 
copper wire, to prevent the intrusion of vermin. The 
screen should be movable, so that any accumulation in 
the pipe may be removed. An arrangement of this kind 
is shown in Fig. 40, as used in England. We know of 
nothing of the kind used in this country. For ourself, 
we have made of coarse wire-netting, a screen, which is 
attached to the pipe by hinges of wire. Holes may be 
bored with a bit through even a hard tile, or a Ho. 9 
wire may be twisted firmly round the end of it, and the 
screen thus secured. 

This has thus far, been our own poor and unsatisfactory 
mode of protecting our drains. It is only better than 
none, but it is not permanent, and we hope to see some 
successful invention that may supply this want. So far 
as we have observed, no such precaution is used in this 
country; and in England, farmers and others who take 
charge’of their own drainage works, often run their pipes 
into the mud in an open ditch, and trust the water to force 
its own passage. 

OF WELLS AND RELIEF PIPES. 

In draining large tracts of land of uniform surface, it 
is often convenient to have single mains, or even minors, 


WELLS AND TRAPS. 


185 


of great length. Obstructions are liable to occur from 
various causes; and, moreover, there is great satisfaction 
in being certain that all is going right, and in watching 
the operation of our subterranean works. It is a common 
practice, and to be commended, to so construct our drains, 
that they may be inspected at suspicious points, and that 
so we may know their real condition. 

For this purpose, wells, or traps, are introduced at suit¬ 
able points, into which the drains discharge, and from 
which the water proceeds again along its course. 

These are made of iron, or of stone or brick work, of 
any size that may be thought convenient, secured by 
covers that may be removed at pleasure. 

Where there is danger of obstruction below the wells, 
relief pipes may be introduced, or the wells may over¬ 
flow, and so discharge temporarily, the drainage water. 
These wells, sometimes called silt basins, or traps, are 
frequently used in road drainage, or in sewers where large 
deposits are made by the drainage water. The sediment 
is carried along and deposited in the traps, while the 
water flows past. 

These traps are large enough for a man to enter, and 
are occasionally cleared of their contents. 

When good stone, or common brick, are at hand, occa¬ 
sional wells may be easily constructed. Plank or timber 
might be used ; and we have even seen an oil cask made 
to serve the purpose temporarily. In most parts of Hew 
England, solid iron castings would not be expensive. 

The water of thorough-drainage is usually as pure as 
spring-water, and such wells may often be conveniently 
used as places for procuring water for both man and beast, 
a consideration well worth a place in arrangements so 
permanent as those for drainage. 

The following figures represent very perfect arrange¬ 
ments of this kind, in actual use. 


186 


FARM DRAINAGE. 




Figs. 41 & 42.— Well with Silt Basin, or Trap, and Coyer. 

The *flap attached to a chain at A, is designed to close 
the incoming drain, so as to keep back the water, and thus 
flash the drain, as it is termed, by filling it with water, 
and then suddenly releasing it. It is found that by this 
process, obstructions by sand, and by per-oxide of iron, 

may be brought down from the drains, when the flow is 
usually feeble. 





























































































WELLS AND TRAPS. 


187 


SMALL WELLS, OR PEEP-HOLES. 

By the significant, though not very elegant name of 
peep-holes, are meant openings at junctions, or other con¬ 
venient points, for watching the pulsations of our subter¬ 
ranean arteries. 

In addition to the large structures of wells and traps, 
such as have been represented, we need small and cheap 
arrangements, by which we may satisfy ourselves and our 
questioning friends and neighbors, that every part of our 
buried treasure, is steadily earning its usury. It is really 
gratifying to be able to allow those who “ don’t see how 
water can get into the tiles,” and who inquire so distrust¬ 
fully whether you “ don’t think that land on the hill would 
be just as dry without the drains,” to satisfy themselves, by 
actually seeing, that there is a liberal flow through all the 
pipes, even in the now dry soil. And then, again, 

“ The best laid schemes o’ mice an’ men 
Gang aft agley.” 

and drains will get obstructed, by one or other of the 
various means suggested in another place. It is then con¬ 
venient to be able to ascertain with certainty, and at once, 
the locality of the difficulty, and this may be done by 
means of peep-holes. 

These may be formed of cast iron, or of well-burnt 
clay, or what is called stone-ware, of 4, 6, or 10 inches 
internal diameter, and long enough to reach from the 
bottom of the drain to the surface, or a little above it. 

The drain or drains, coming into this little well, should 
enter a few inches above the pipe which carries -off the 
water, so that the incoming stream may be plainly seen. 
A strong cover should be fitted to the top, and secured so- 
as not to cause injury to cattle at work or feeding on the 
land. The arrangement will be at once seen by a sketch 
given on the following page. 


188 


FA KM DRAINAGE. 



Figs. 43 & 44. —Small Well, ob Peep-hole, and Coyeb. 


In our own fields, we have adopted several expedients 
to attain this object of convenient inspection. In one 
case, where we have a sub-main, which receives the small 
drains of an acre of orchard, laid at nearly five feet depth, 
we sunk two 40-gallon oil casks, one upon the other, at the 
junction of this sub-main with another, and fitted upon 
the top a strong wooden cover. The objections to this 
contrivance are, that it is temporary ; that it occupies too 
much room ; and that it is more expensive than a well of 
cast iron or stone-ware of proper size. 

In another part of the same field, we had a spring of 
excellent w r ater, where, “ from the time whereof the 
memory of man runneth not to the contrary,” people 
had fancied they found better w T ater to drink* than any¬ 
where else. It is near a ravine, through which a main 










































WELLS AND TRAPS. 


189 


drain is located, and which is now graded up into con¬ 
venient plow land. 

To preserve this spring for use in the Summer time, we 
procured a tin-worker to make a well, of galvanized iron, 
five feet long and ten inches diameter, into which are con¬ 
ducted the drain and the spring. A friendly hand has 
sketched it for us very accurately ; thus: 



The spring is brought in at a by a few tiles laid into 
the bank where the water naturally burs'ts out. The pipe 
b brings in the drain, which always flows largely, and the 
pipe c carries away the water. The small dipper, marked 
d, hangs inside the well, and is used by every man, 
woman, and boy, who passes that way. The spring enters 
six inches above the drain, for convenience in catching its 
water to drink. 

By careful observation the present Winter of 1858-9, 
the impression that there is some peculiar quality in this 
water is confirmed, for it is ascertained that it is six 
degrees warmer in cold weather than any other water 
upon the farm. The spring preserves a temperature of 









































190 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


about 47°, while the drain running through the same well, 
and the other drains in the field, and the well at the house, 

vary from 39° to 42°. 

«/ 

We confess to the weakness of taking great satisfaction 
in sipping this water, cool in Summer and warm in Winter, 
and in watching the mingled streams of spring and drain¬ 
age water, and listening as we pass by, to their tinkling 
sound, which, like the faithful watchman of the uight, 
proclaims that “ all is well.” 

POSITION AND SIZE OF THE MAINS. 

Having fixed on the proper position of the outlet, for 
the whole, or any portion of our work, the next con¬ 
sideration is the location of the drains that shall discharge 
at that point. It is convenient to speak of the different 
drains as mains , sub-mains , and minors. By mains , are 
understood the principal drains, of whatever material, the 
office of which is, to receive and carry away water 
collected by other drains from the soil. By minors , are 
intended the small drains which receive the surplus water 
directly from the soil. By sub-mains , are meant such 
intermediate drains as are frequently in large fields, 
interposed across the line of the minors, to receive their 
discharge, and conduct their water to the mains. 

They are principally used, where there is a greater 
length of small drains in one direction than it is thought 
expedient to use; or where, from the unequal surface, it 
is necessary to lay out subordinate systems of drains, to 
reach particular localities. 

Whether after the outlet is located, the mains or minors 
should next be laid out, is not perhaps very important. 
The natural course would seem to be, to lay out the mains 
according to the surface formation of the land, through 
the principal hollows of the field, although we have high 
authority for commencing with the minors, and allowing 


POSITION, SIZE, AND JUNCTION OF DKAINS. 191 

their appropriate direction to determine the location of 
the mains. 

This is, however, rather a question of precedence and 
etiquette, than of practical importance. The only safe 
mode of executing so important a work as drainage, is by 
careful surveys by persons of sufficient skill, to lay out the 
whole field of operations, before the ground is broken; to 
take all the levels ; to compare all the different slopes; 
consider all the circumstances, and arrange the work as a 
systematic whole. Generally, there will be no conflict of 
circumstances, as to where the mains shall be located. 
They must be lower than the minors, because they receive 
their water. They must ordinarily run across the direc¬ 
tion of the minors, either at right angles or diagonally, 
because otherwise they cannot receive their discharge. 
If, then, in general, the minors, as we assume, run down 
the slope, the mains must run at the foot of the slope and 
across it. 

It will be found in practice, that all the circumstances 
alluded to, will combine to locate the mains across the 
foot of regular slopes; and whether in straight or curved 
lines, along through the natural valleys of the field. 

In locating the mains, regard must always be had to 
the quantity of water and to the fall. Where a field is 
of regular slope, and the descent very slight, it will be 
necessary, in order to gain for the main the requisite fall, 
to run it diagonally across the bottom of the slope, thus 
taking into it a portion of the fall of the slope. If the 
fall requires to be still more increased, often the main 
may be deepened towards the outlet, so as to gain fall 
sufficient, even on level ground. 

If the fall is very slight, the size of the main may be 
made to compensate in part for want of tall, lor it will 
not be forgotten, that the capacity of a pipe to convey 
water depends much on the velocity of the current, and 


192 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the velocity increases in proportion to the fall. If the 
fall and consequent velocity be small, the water will 
require a larger drain to carry it freely along. The size 
of the mains should be sufficient to convey, with such fall 
as is attainable, the greatest quantity of water that may 
ever be expected to reach them. Beyond this, an increase 
of size is rather a disadvantage than otherwise, because a 
small flow of water runs with more velocity when com¬ 
pressed in a narrow channel, than when broadly spread, 
and so has more power to force its way, and carry before 
it obstructing substances. 

We have seen, in considering the size of tiles, that in 
laying the minor drains, their capacity to carry all the 
water that may reach them is not the only limit of their 
size. A one-inch tile might in many cases be sufficient 
to conduct the water; but the best drainers, after much 
controversy on the point, now all agree that this is a size 
too small for prudent use, because so small an opening is 
liable to be obstructed by a very slight deposit from the 
water, or by a slight displacement, and because the joints 
furnish small space for the admission of water. 

Mains, however, being designed merely to carry off 
such water as they may receive from other drains, may in 
general be limited to the size sufficient to convey such 
water, at the greatest flow. It might seem a natural 
course, to proportion the capacity of the main to the 
capacit}^ of the smaller drains that fall irffo it; and this 
would be the true rule, were the small drains expected to 
run full. 

If our smallest drain, however, be of two-inch, or even 
one and a half inch bore, it can hardly be expected to fill 
at any time, unless of great length, or in some peculiarly 
wet place. Considering, then, what quantity of water 
will be likely to be conducted into the main, proportion 
the main not to the capacity of all the smaller drains 


POSITION, SIZE, AND JUNCTION OF DRAINS. 


193 


leading into it, but to the probable maximum flow—not 
to what they might bring into it, but to what they will 
bring. 

If the mains be of three-inch pipes, other things being 
equal, their capacity is nine times that of a one-inch pipe, 
and two and a quarter times the capacity of a two-inch 
pipe. 

A three-inch main may, then, with equal fall and 
directness, be safely relied on to carry nine streams of water 
equal each to one inch diameter, or two and a quarter 
streams, equal to a two-inch stream. The three-inch 
main will, in fact, from the less amount of friction, carry 
much more than this proportion. 

The allowance to be made for a less fall in the mains, 
has already been adverted to, and must not be overlooked. 
It is believed that the capacity of a three or four-inch 
pipe to convey water, is in general likely to be much 
under-estimated. 

It is a common error, to imagine that some large stone 
water-course must be necessary to carry off so large a flow 
as will be collected by a system over a ten or twenty-acre 
field. Any one, however, who has watched the full flow 
of even a three-inch pipe, and observed the water after it 
has fallen into a nearly level ditch, will be aware, that 
what seems in the ditch a large stream, impeded as it is 
by a rough, uneven bottom, may pass through a three 
inch opening of smooth, well-jointed pipes. When we 
consider that a four-inch pipe is four times as capacious 
as a two-inch pipe, and sixteen times as large as a one- 
inch pipe, we may see that we may accommodate any 
quantity of water that may be likely anywhere to be 
collected by drainage, without recourse to other materials 
than tiles. 

When one three or four-inch pipe is not sufficient to 
convey the water, mains may conveniently be formed of 


194 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


two or more tiles of any form. A main drain is some¬ 
times formed by combining two horse-shoe tiles, with a 
tile sole or slate between them, to prevent slipping, as in 

. 47 . 

Fig. 47. Fig. 48. 




Main Drain of two or more Horse-shoe Tiles. 


The combinations represented in the above figures, will 
furnish sufficient suggestions to enable any one to select 
or arrange such forms as may be deemed best suited to the 
case in hand. Where the largest obtainable tile is not 
large enough, two or more lines of pipes may be laid 
abreast. 

POSITION OF THE MINOR DRAINS. 

Assuming that it is desirable to run the small drains, as 
far as practicable, up and down the slope, the following 
directions, from the Cyclopedia of Agriculture, are given : 

u There is a very simple mode of laying out these (the minor drains), 
which will apply to most cases, or, indeed, to all, although in some its 
application may be more difficult. The surface of each field must he 
regarded as being made up of one or more planes, as the case may he. 
for each of which the drains should be laid out separately. Level lines 
are to be set out, a little below the upper edge of each of these planes, 
and the drains must be then made to cross these lines at right angles. 
By this means, the drains will run in the line of the greatest slope, no 
matter how distorted the surface of the field may be.” 

Much is said, in the English books, about “ furrows,” 


























































































POSITION, SIZE, AND JUNCTION OF DRAINS. 195 

and the “ direction of the furrows,” in connection with 
the laying out of drains. Much of the land in England, 
especially in moist places, was formerly laid up by re¬ 
peated plowings, into ridges varying in breadth from ten 
to twenty feet, so as to throw off, readily, the water from 
the surface. 

These ridges were sometimes so high, that two boys 
in opposite furrows, between the ridges, could not see 
each other. In draining lands thus ridged, it is found far 
more easy to cut the ditches in the furrows, rather than 
across or upon the ridges. After thorough-drainage, in 
most localities, these ridges and furrows are dispensed 
with. The fact is, probably, only important here, as ex¬ 
plaining the constant reference by English writers to this 
mode of working the land. 

Whether we shall drain “ down the furrows,” or “ across 
the ridges,” is not likely to be inquired of, by Americans. 

The accompanying diagram represents a field of about 
thirty acres, as drained by the owner, B. E. ETourse, Esq., 
of Orrington, Me., a particular description of which will 
be found in another place. 

The curves of the ends of the minors, at their junction 
with the mains, will indicate their course—the minors 
curving always so as to more nearly coincide, in course, 
with the current of water in the mains. 

THE JUNCTION OF DRAINS. 

Much difficulty arises in practice, as to connecting, in a 
secure and satisfactory manner, the smaller with the larger 
drains. It has already been suggested, that the streams 
should not meet at right angles, but that a bend should 
be made in the smaller drain, a few feet before it enters 
the main, so as to introduce the water of the small drain 
in the direction of the current in the main. In another 
place, an instance is given where it was found that a 


196 


farm drainage. 


quantity of water was discharged with a turn, or junction 
with a gentle curve, in 100 seconds, that required 140 
seconds with a turn at right angles; and that while run¬ 
ning direct, that is, without any turn, it was discharged in 
90 seconds. This is given as a mere illustration of the 
principle, which is obvious enough. Different experiments 
would vary with the velocity, quantity of water, and 
smoothness of the pipe ; but nothing is more certain, than 
that every change of direction impedes velocity. 

Thus we see that if we had but a single drain, the 
necessary turns should be curved, to afford the least ob¬ 
struction. 

Where the drain enters into another current, there is 
yet a further obstruction, by the meeting of the two 
streams. Two equal streams, of similar velocity and size, 
thus meeting at right angles, would have a tendency to 
move off diagonally, if not confined by the pipe; and, 
confined as they are, must both be materially retarded in 
their flow. In whatever manner united, there must be 
much obstruction, if the main is nearly full, at the point 
of junction. The common mode of connecting horse-shoe 
tile-drains is shown thus : 


Having no tiles made for 
the purpose, we, at first, formed 
the union by means of common 
hard bricks. Curving down 
the small drain toward the di¬ 
rection of the main, we left a 
space between two tiles of the 
main, of two or three inches, 
and brought down the last tile of the small drain to this 
opening, placing under the whole a flat stone, slate, or 
bricks, or a plank, to keep all firm at the bottom. Then 
we set bricks on edge on all sides, and covered the space 



Fig. 50. —Junction of Drains. 







POSITION, SIZE, AND JUNCTION OF DRAINS. 197 

at the top with one or more, as necessary, and secured 
carefully against sand and the like. 

We have since procured branch-pipes to be made at 

the tile-works, such as are in use in Eng¬ 
land, and find them much more satisfac¬ 
tory. The branches may be made to join 
the mains at any angle, and it might be 
advisable to make this part of both drains 
larger than the rest, to allow room for the obstructed waters 
to unite peacefully. 

The mains should be from three to six inches deeper 
than the minors. The fall from one to the other may 
usually be made most conveniently, by a gradual descent 
of three or four feet to the point of junction ; but with 
branch-pipes, the fall may be nearly vertical, if desired, 
by turning the branch upward, to meet the small pipe. 
It will be necessary, in procuring branches for sole-tiles, 
to bear in mind that they are “ rights and lefts,” and must 
be selected accordingly, as the branch comes in upon the 
one or other side of the main. 

The branch should enter the larger pipe not level with 
the bottom, but as high as possible, to give an inch fall to 
the water passing out of the branch into the main, to pre¬ 
vent possible obstruction at the junction. 

DRAINAGE INTO WELLS, OR SWALLOW HOLES. 

In various parts of our country, there are lands lying 
too flat for convenient drainage in the ordinary methods, 
or too remote from any good outlet, or perhaps enclosed 
by lands of others* who will not consent to an outfall 
through their domain, where the drainage water may be 
discharged into wells. 

In the city of Washington, on Capitol Hill, it is a com¬ 
mon practice to drain cellars into what are termed “ dry 
wells.” The surface formation is a close red clay, of a 


Fig. 51. 



Bbanch Pipes. 



198 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


few feet thickness, and then comes a stratum of coarse 
gravel; and the wells for water are sunk often as deep as 
sixty feet, indicating that the water-table lies very low. 
The heavy storms and showers fill the surface soil beyond 
saturation, and the water gushes out, literally, into the 
cellars and other low places. A dry well, sunk through 
the clay, conducts this water into the gravel bed, and this 
carries it away. This idea is often applied to land 
drainage. It is believed that there are immense tracts of 
fertile land at the West, upon limestone, where the surface 
might readily be relieved of surplus water, by conducting 
the mains into wells dug for the purpose. In some places, 
there are openings called “ sink-holes,” caused by the sink¬ 
ing of masses of earth, as in the neighborhood of the city 
of St. Louis, which would afford outlets for all the water 
that could be poured into them. In the Deport of the 
Tioga County Agricultural Society for 1857, it is said in 
the Country Gentleman , that instances are given, where 
swamps were drained through the clay bottom into the 
underlying gravelly soil, by digging wells and filling them 
with stones. 

In Fig. 7, at page 82, is shown a “ fault” in the stratifi¬ 
cation of the earth; which faults, it is said, so completely 
carry off water, that wells cannot be sunk so as to reach 
it. 

Mr. Denton says that in several parts of England, 
advantage is taken of the natural drainage existing 
beneath wet clay soils, by concentrating the drains to 
holes, called “ swallow-holes.” He says this practice is 
open to the objection that those holes do not always absorb 
the water with sufficient rapidity, and so render the 
drainage for a time, inoperative. 

These wells are liable, too, to be obstructed in their 
operation by their bottoms being puddled with the clay 
carried into them by the water, and so becoming imper- 


POSITION, SIZE, AND JUNCTION OF DRAINS. 199 

vious. This point would require occasional attention, and 
the removal of such deposits. 

This principle of drainage was alluded to at the 
American Institute, February 14, 1859, by Professor 
Nash. He states, that there are large tracts of land having 
clay soil, with sand or gravel beneath the clay, which yet 
need drainage, and suggests that this may be effected by 
merely boring frequent holes, and filling them with peb¬ 
bles, without ditches. In all such soils, if the mode 
suggested prove insufficient, large wells of proper depth, 
stoned up, or otherwise protected, might obviously serve 
as cheap and convenient outlets for a regular system of 
pipe or stone drains. 

Mr. Bergen, at the same meeting, stated that such 
clayey soil, based on gravel, was the character of much 
of the land on Long Island; and we cannot doubt 
that on the prairies of the West, where the w T ells 
are frequently of great depth to obtain water for use, 
wells or swallow-holes to receive it, may often be found 
useful. Whenever the water-line is twenty or thirty feet 
below the surface, it is certain that it will require a large 
amount of water poured in at the surface of a well to 
keep it filled for any considerable length of time. The 
same principle that forces water into wells, that is, pres¬ 
sure from a higher source, will allow its passage out when 
admitted at the top. 

We close this chapter with a letter from Mr. Denton. 
The extract referred to, has been here omitted, because 
we have already, in the chapter preceding this, given Mr. 
Denton’s views, expressed more fully upon the same 
subject, with his own illustrations. 

It should be stated that the letter was in reply to 
inquiries upon particular points, which, although discon¬ 
nected, are all of interest, when touched upon by one 
whose opinions are so valuable. 


200 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


“London, 52 Parliament Street, Westminster, S. W. 

“My Dear Sir:— I have received your letter of the 17th August, 
and hasten to reply to it. 

“ I am gratified at the terms in which you speak of my roughly-writ¬ 
ten 1 Essays on Land Drainage. 1 If you have not seen my published 
letter to Lord Berners, and my recent essay 1 On the Advantages of a 
Daily Record of Rain-fall/ I should much like you to look over them, 
for my object in both has been to check the uniformity of treatment 
which too much prevails with those who are officially called upon to 
direct draining, and who still treat mixed soils and irregular surfaces 
pretty much in the same way as homogeneous clays and even surfaces, 
the only difference being, that the distance between the drains is 
increased. We have now, without doubt, arrived at that point in the 
practice of draining in this country, which necessitates a revision of all 
the principles and rules which have been called into force by the 
Drainage Acts, and the institution of the Drainage Commission, whose 
duty it is to administer those Acts, and to protect the interests of 
Reversioners. 

“ This protection is, in a great measure, performed by the interven¬ 
tion of £ Inspectors of Drainage,’ whose subordinate duty it is to see that 
the improvements provisionally sanctioned are carried out according to 
certain implied, if not fixed, rules. This is done by measuring depth 
and distance, which tends to a parallel system (4 feet deep) in all soils , 
which was Smith of Deanston’s notion, only his drains were shallower, 
i.e ., from 2 to 3 feet deep. 

“ Some rules were undoubtedly necessary when the Commissioners 
first commenced dispensing the public money, and I do not express my 
objection to the absurd position to which these rules are bringing us, 
from any disrespect to them, nor with an idea that any better course 
could have been followed by the Government, in the first instance, 
than the adoption of the £ Parkes—Smith frequent drain system .’ This 
system was correctly applied, and continues to be correctly applied, to 
absorbent and retentive soils requiring the aeration of frequent drains 
to counteract their retentive nature ; but it is altogether misapplied 
when adopted in the outcropping surfaces of the free water-bearing 
strata, which, though equally wet, are frequently drained by a com¬ 
paratively few drains, at less than half the cost. 

“ The only circumstance that can excuse the indiscriminate adoption 
of a parallel system, is the fact, that all drains do some good, and the 
chances of a cure being greater in proportion to the number of drains, 


POSITION, SIZE, AND JUNCTION OF DRAINS. 


201 


it was not necessary to insist upon that judgment which ten years’ 
experience should now give. 

“ My views on this point will perhaps he best understood by the 
following extract from an address I recently delivered. [Extract 
omitted, see p. 161]. 

* * * “ I use one and a half inch pipes for the upper end of 

drains (though I prefer two-inch), one half being usually one and a half 
and the other half two-inch. This for minor drains ; the mains run up 
to 9 or 10 inches, and even 18 inches in size, according to their service. 

“ There is no doubt sufficient capacity in one-inch pipes for minor 
drains ■ but, inasmuch as agricultural laborers are not mathematical 
scholars, and are apt to lay the pipes without precise junctions, it is 
best to have the pipes so large as to counteract that degree of careless¬ 
ness w r hich cannot be prevented. The ordinary price of pipes in this 


country will run thus: + meaning above , and — below , the prices 
named : 

ll inch. 15s.+ 

2 “ . 20s. - 

3 “ . 30s. 

4 “ . 40s. + 

5 “ . 50s. + 

6 “ _ ..._.....r--_...... —.— 60s. + 


“ The price of cutting clays 4 feet deep, will vary from Id. to lid. 
per yard, according to density and mixture with stone: and the price of 
cutting in mixed soils will vary from l^d. to 6d., according to the quan¬ 
tity of pick-work and rock, and with respect, also, to the price of agri¬ 
cultural labor. (See my tabular table of cost in Land Drainage and 
Drainage Systems.) 

“ I should have thought it would have been quite worth the while 
of the American Government to have had a farm of about 500 acres, 
drained by English hands, under an experienced engineer, as a practi¬ 
ce al sample of English work, for the study of American agriculturists, 
with every drain laid down on a plan, with the sizes of the pipes, and 
all details of soil, and prices of labor and material, set forth. 

“ I am, dear Sir, 

“Yours very faithfully, 

“The Hon. H. F. French, Exeter. “ J. BAILEY DENTON.” 


9* 








202 


FARM DRAINAGE. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE COST OF TILES-TILE MACHINES. 

Prices far too high ; Albany Prices.—Length of Tiles.—Cost in Suffolk Co., 
England.—Waller’s Machine.—Williams’ Machine.—Cost of Tiles compared 
with Bricks.—Mr. Denton’s Estimate of Cost.—Other Estimates.—Two- 
inch Tiles can be Made as Cheaply as Bricks.—Process of Rolling Tiles.— 
Tile Machines—Descriptions of Dames’.—Pratt & Bro.’s. 

The prices at which tiles are sold is only, as the lawyers 
say, primti facie evidence of their cost. It seems to ns, 
that the prices at which tiles have thus far been sold in 
this country, are very far above those at which they may 
be profitably manufactured, when the business is well un¬ 
derstood, and pursued upon a scale large enough to justify 
the use of the best machinery. The following is a copy 
of the published prices of tiles at the Albany Tile Works, 
and the same prices prevail throughout Hew England, so 
far as known : 


Horseshoe Tile,—Pieces. Sole-Tile — Pieces. 


2^ inches rise... 


2 

inches 

rise.... 



u 

u 

... 15 

u 

3 

a 

ii 

18 

u 

44 

u 

u 

... 18 

n 

4 

• ii 

u 

... 40 

u 


u 

ll 

... 40 

cc 

5 

u 

u 

60 

u 

61 

u 

u 

... 60 

u 

6 

u 

u 

... 80 

n 

71 

u 

ll 

... 75 

i: 

8 

u 

u 

... 125 

a 


Few round pipe-tiles have yet been used in this country, 
although they are the kind generally preferred by engi¬ 
neers in England. The prices of round tiles would vary 
little from those of sole-tiles. 

Tiles are usually cut fourteen inches long, and shorten, 
















COST OF TILES. 


203 


in drying and burning, to about twelve and a half inches, 
so that, with breaking and other casualties, they may be 
calculated to layabout one foot each ; that is to say, 1,000 
tiles may be expected to lay 1,000 feet of drains. 

To assist those who desire to manufacture tiles for sale, 
or for private use, it is proposed to give such information 
as has been gathered from various sources as to the cost 
of making, and the selling prices of tiles, in England. 
The following is a memorandum made at the residence of 
Mr. Thomas Crisp, at Butley Abbey, in Suffolk Co., Eng., 
from information given the author on the 8th of July, 
1857 : 

“ Mr. Crisp makes his own tiles, and also supplies his 
neighbors who need them. He sells one and a half inch 
pipes at 12s. ($3) per 1,000. He pays 5s. ($1.25) per 
1,000 for having them made and burnt. His machine is 
Waller’s patent, Ho. 22, made by Garrett and Son, Leiston, 
Saxemundham, Suffolk. It works by a lever, makes five 
one and a half inch pipes at once, or three sole-tiles about 
two-inch. The man at work said, that he, with a man to 
carry away, &c., could make 4,000 one and a half inch 
pipes per day. They used no screen, but cut the clay 
with a wire. The machine cost £25 (about $125). At the 
kiln, which is permanent, the tiles are set on end, and 
bricks with them in the same kiln. They require less heat 
than bricks, and cost about half as much as bricks here, 
which are moulded ten inches by five. 

“ Two girls were loading.bricks into a horse-cart, and 
two women receiving them, and setting them in the 
kiln: They made roof-tiles with the same machine, and 
also moulded large ones by hand. The wages of the women 
are about 8d. (sixteen cents) per day.” 

At the exhibition of the Boyal Agricultural Society, in 
England, the author saw Williams’ Tile Machine in oper¬ 
ation, and was there informed by the exhibitor, who said 


204 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


he was a tile-maker, that it requires five-sevenths as much 
coal to burn 1,000 two-inch tiles, as 1,000 bricks—the size 
of bricks being 10 by 5 ; and he declared, that he, with 
one boy, could make with the machine, 7,000 two-inch 
tiles per day, after the clay is prepared. Of course, one 
other person, at least, must be employed to carry off the 
tiles. 

Mr. Denton gives his estimates of the prices at which 
pipe-tiles may be procured in England, as follows—the 
prices, which he gives in English currency, being trans¬ 
lated into our own : 

“ When ordinary agricultural labor is worth $2 50 per week, pipes 
half one and a half inch, and half two-inch, may be taken at an average 
cost of $4 38 per 1,000. When labor is $3 00 per week, the pipes will 
average So 00 per 1,000, and when labor is $3 50, they will rise to 
$5 62.” 

He adds: “ In giving the above average cost of materials, those dis¬ 
tricts are excluded from consideration, where clay suitable for pipes, 
exists in the immediate vicinity of coal-pits, which must necessarily 
reduce the cost of producing them very considerably.” 

Taking the averages of several careful estimates of the 
cost of tiles and bricks, from the “ Cyclopaedia of Agri¬ 
culture,” we have the price of tiles in England about $5 
per 1,000, and the price of bricks $7.87, from which the 
duty of 5s. 6d. should be deducted, leaving the average 
price of bricks $6.50. Upon tiles there is no such duty. 
Bricks in the United States are made of different sizes, 
varying from 8x4 in. to the English standard 10 X 5 in. 
Perhaps a fair average price for bricks of the latter size, 
would be not far from $5 per 1,000 ; certainly below $6.50 
per 1,000. There is no reason why tiles may not be manu¬ 
factured in the United States, as cheaply, compared with 
the prices of bricks, as in England ; and it is quite clear 
that tiles of the sizes named, are far cheaper there than 
common bricks. 

What is wanted in this country is, first, a demand suf- 


TILE MACHINES. 


205 


ficient to authorize the establishment of works extensive 
enough to make tiles at the best advantage ; next, com- 
j^etent skill to direct and perform the labor ; and, finally, 
the best machinery and fixtures for the purpose. It is 
confidently predicted, that, whenever the business of tile¬ 
making becomes properly established, the ingenuity of 
American machinists will render it easy to manufacture 
tiles at English prices, notwithstanding the lower price of 
labor there ; and that we shall be supplied with small tiles 
in all parts of the country at about the current prices of 
bricks, or at about one half the present Albany prices of 
tiles, as given at the head of this chapter. It should be 
mentioned here, perhaps, that, in England, it is common ' 
to burn tiles and bricks together in the same kiln, placing 
the tiles away from the hottest parts of the furnace; as, 
being but about half an inch in thickness, they require 
less heat to burn them than bricks. 

In the estimates of labor in making tiles in England, a 
small item is usually included for “ rolling. 5 ’ Round 
pipes are chiefly used in England. When partly dried, 
they are taken up on a round stick, and rolled upon a 
small table, to preserve their exact form. Tiles usually 
flatten somewhat in drying, which is not of importance in 
any but round pipes, but those ought to be uniform. By 
this process of rolling, great exactness of shape, and a 
great degree of smoothness inside, are preserved. 

TILE MACHINES. 

Drainage with tiles is a new branch of husbandry in 
America. The cost of tiles is now a great obstacle in 
prosecuting much work of this kind which land-owners 
desire to accomplish. The cost of tiles, and so the cost 
of drainage, depends very much—it may be said, chiefly 
—upon the perfection of the machinery for tile-making; 
and here, as almost everywhere else, agriculture and the 


206 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


mechanic arts go hand in hand. Labor is much dearer in 
America than in Europe, and there is, therefore, more 
occasion here than there, for applying mechanical power 
to agriculture. We can have no cheap drainage until we 
have cheap tiles; and we can have cheap tiles only by 
having them made with the most perfect machinery, and 
at the lowest prices at which competing manufacturers, 
who understand their business, can afford them. 

In the preceding remarks on the cost of tiles , may be 
found estimates, which will satisfy any thinking man that 
tiles have not yet been sold in America at reasonably low 
prices. 

To give those who may desire to establish tileries, either 
for public or private supply, information, which cannot 
readily be obtained without great expense of English 
books, as to the prices of tile machines, it is now proposed 
to give some account of the best English machines, and 
of such American inventions as have been brought to 
notice. 

It is of importance that American machinists and in¬ 
ventors should be apprised of the progress that has been 
made abroad in perfecting tile machines; because, as the 
subject attracts attention, the ingenuity of the universal 
Yankee nation will soon be directed toward the discovery 
of improvements in all the processes of tile-making. Tiles 
were made by hand long before tile machines were 
invented. 

A Mr. Head, in the “ Royal Agricultural Journal,” 
claims to have used pipe tiles as early as 1795, made by 
hand, and formed on a round stick. 'No machine for 
making tiles is described, before that of Mr. Beart’s, in 
1840, by which “ common tile and sole (not pipes or 
tubes) were made.” This machine, however, was of simple 
structure, and not adapted to the varieties of tiles now 
used. 


TILE MACHINES. 


207 


All tile machines seem to operate on the same general 
principle—that of forcing wet clay, of the consistency of 
that used in brick-making, through apertures of the desired 
shape and size. To make the mass thus forced through 
the aperture, hollow , the hole must have a piece of metal 
in the centre of it, around which the clay forms, as it is 
pushed along. This centre piece is kept in position by 
one or two thin pieces of iron, which of course divide the 
clay which passes over them, but it unites again as it is 
forced through the die, and comes out sound, and is then 
cut off, usually by hand, by means of a small wire, of the 
required length, about fourteen inches. 

Tile machines work either vertically or horizontally. 
The most primitive machine which came to the author’s 
notice abroad, w r as one which we saw on our way from 
London to Mr. Mechi’s place. It was a mere upright 
cylinder, of some two feet height, and perhaps eight 
inches diameter, in which worked a piston. The clay 
was thrown into the cylinder, and the piston brought 
down by means of a brake, like an old-fashioned pump, 
and a single round pipe-tile forced out at the bottom. 
The force employed was one man and two boys. One 
boy screened the clay, by passing through it a wire in 
various directions, holding the wire by the ends, and 
cutting through the mass till he had found all the small 
stones contained in it. The man threw the masses thus pre¬ 
pared, into the cylinder, and put on the brake, and the other 
boy received the tiles upon a round stick, as they came 
down through the die at the bottom, and laid them away. 
The cylinder held clay enough to make several, perhaps 
twenty, two-inch pipes. The work was going on in a shed 
without a floor, and upon a liberal estimate, the whole 
establishment, including shed and machine, could not 
cost more than fifty dollars. Yet, on this simple plan, 
tiles were moulded much more rapidly than bricks were 


208 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


made in the same yard, where they were moulded singly, 
as they usually are in England. It was said that this 
force could thus mould about 1,800 small tiles per day. 

This little machine seems to be the same described by 
Mr. Parkes as in general use in 1843, in Kent and Suffolk 
Counties 

Most of the tile machines now in use in England and 
America, are so constructed, as to force out the tiles upon 
a horizontal frame-work, about five two-inch, or three 
three-inch pipes abreast. The box to contain the clay 
may be upright or horizontal, and the power may be 
applied to a wheel, by a crank turned by a man, or by 
horse, steam, or water power, according to the extent of 
the works. 

We saw at the Exhibition of the Boyal Agricultural 
Society, at Salisbury, in England, in July, 1857, the 
“ pipe and tile machine,” of W. Williams, of Bedford. 
It was in operation, for exhibition, and was worked by 
one man, who said he was a tile maker, and that he and 
one boy could make with the machine 7,000 two-inch 
tiles per day, after the clay was prepared in the pug mill. 
Four tiles were formed at once, by clay passed through 
four dies, and the box holds clay enough for thirty-two 
two-inch tiles, so that thirty-two are formed as quickly as 
they can be removed, and as many more, as soon as the 
box can be refilled. 

The size, Ko. 3, of this machine, such as vre then saw 
in operation, and which is suitable for common use, costs 
at Bedford $88.50, with one set of dies; and the extra 
dies, for making three, four, and six-inch pipes, and other 
forms, if desired, with the horses , as they are called, for 
removing the tiles, cost about five dollars each. 

This, like most other tile machines, is adapted to making 
tiles for roofs, much used in England instead of shingles 
or slates, as well as for draining purposes. 

There are several machines now in use in England, 







• . 




■ 











































































. 






DAINES' DltAIN TILE MAKEK 






























































































































TILE MACHINES. 


209 


namely: Etheridge’s. Clayton’s, Scragg’s, Whitehead’s, 
and Garrett’s—either of which would be satisfactory, 
according to the amount of work desired. 

We have in America several patented machines for 
making tiles, of the comparative merits of which we are 
unable to give a satisfactory judgment. We will, how¬ 
ever, allude to two or three, advising those who are desir¬ 
ous to purchase, to make personal examination for them¬ 
selves. We are obliged to rely chiefly on the statements 
of the manufacturers for our opinions. 

.Gaines’ American Grain Tile Machine is manufactured 
at Birmingham, Michigan, by John Gaines. This machine 
is in use in Exeter, 1ST. TL, close by the author’s residence, 
and thus far proves satisfactory. The price of it is about 
$100, and the weight, about five hundred pounds. It 
occupies no more space than a common three-and-a-half 
foot table, and is worked by a man at a crank. It is 
capable of turning out, by man power, about two hundred 
and fifty two-inch tiles in an hour, after the clay is prepared 
in a pug mill. Horse or water power can be readily 
attached to it. 

We give a drawing of it, not because we are sure it is 
the best, but because we are sure it is a good machine, 
and to illustrate the principle upon which all these 
machines are constructed. 

Pratt’s Tile Machine is manufactured at Canandaigua, 
Hew York, by Pratt & Brothers, and is in use in various 
places in that State as well as elsewhere. This machine 
differs from Gaines’ in this essential matter, that here the 
clay is pugged, or tempered, and formed into tiles at one 
operation, while with Gaines’ machine, the clay is first 
passed through a pug mill, as it is for making bricks in 
the common process. 

Pratt’s machine is worked by one or two horses, or by 
steam or water power, as is convenient. The price of the 
smaller size, worked by one horse, is $150, and the price 


210 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


of the larger size, worked by two horses, $200. Professor 
Mapes says he saw this machine in operation and considers 



Fig. 53.— Pbatt's Tile Machine. 


it “ perfect in all its parts.” The patentees claim that they 
can make, with the one-horse machine, 5,000 large tiles a 
day. They state also that “two horses will make tiles 
about as cheap as bricks are usually made, and as fast, 
with the large-sized machine.” 

These somewhat indefinite statements are all that we 
can give, at present, of the capacity of the machines. We 
should have no hesitation in ordering a Pratt machine 
were we desirous of entering into an extensive business of 
Tile-making, and we should feel quite safe with a Daines’ 
machine for a more limited manufacture. 

Salisbury’s tile machine. 

S. C. Salisbury, at the Novelty Works, in the city of 
New York, is manufacturing a machine for making tiles 
and bricks, which exhibits some new and peculiar features, 
worthy of attention by those who propose to purchase tile 
machines. Prof. Mapes expresses the confident opinion 
that this machine excels all others, in its capacity to form 
tiles with rapidity and economy. We have examined only 
a working model. It is claimed that the large size, with 
horse-power, will make 20,000 two-inch tiles per day, and 
the hand-power machine 3,000 per day. We advise tile 
makers to examine all these machines in operation, before 
purchasing either. 






















COST OF DRAINAGE. ' 


211 


CHAPTER X. 

THE COST OF DRAINAGE. 

Draining no more expensive than Fencing. — Engineering. — Guessing not 
accurate enough.—Slight Fall sufficient.—Instances.—Two Inches to One 
Thousand Feet.—Cost of Excavation and Filling.—Narrow Tools required. 
—Tables of Cubic contents of Drains.—Cost of Drains on our own Farm.— 
Cost of Tiles.—Weight and Freight of Tiles.—Cost of Outlets.—Cost of 
Collars.—Smaller Tiles used with Collars.—Number of Tiles to the Acre, 
with Tables.—Length of Tiles varies.—Number of Rods to the Acre at 
different Distances.—Final Estimate of Cost.—Comparative Cost of Tile- 
Drains and Stone-Drains. 


A prudent man, intending to execute a work, whether 
it be “to build a tower,” or drain a field, “sitteth down 
first and counteth the cost, whether he hath sufficient to 
finish it.” There is good sense and discretion in the in¬ 
quisitiveness which suggests so often the inquiry, “ How 
much does it cost to drain an acre?” or, “How much 
does it cost a rod to lay drains?” These questions cannot 
be answered so briefly as they are asked; yet much in¬ 
formation can be given, which will aid one who will 
investigate the subject. 

The process of drainage is expensive, as compared with 
the price of land in our new settlements; but its cost will 
not alarm those who have been accustomed to see the 
improvements made in Hew England upon well cultivated 
farms. Compared with the labor and cost of building 
and maintaining fences upon the highways, and in the 
subdivisions of lots, common in the Eastern States, the 


212 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


drainage of land is a small matter. We see in many 
places long stretches of faced walls, on the line of our 
roads near towns and villages, which cost from two to five 
dollars per rod. Our common “stone walls” in these 
States cost about one dollar per rod to build originally; 
and almost any kind of wooden fence costs as much. Upon 
fences, there is occasion for annual repairs, while drains 
properly laid, are permanent. 

These suggestions are thrown out, that farmers may not 
be alarmed without cause, at the high cash estimates of 
the cost of drainage operations. Money comes slowly to 
farmers, and a cash estimate looks larger to them than 
an estimate in labor. The cost of fencing seems no great 
burden; though, estimated in cash, it would seem, as in 
fact it is, a severe charge. 

Drainage can be performed principally by the same 
kind of labor as fencing, the cost of the tiles being a small 
item in the whole expense. The estimates of labor will 
be made at one dollar per day, in investigating this 
matter. 

This would be the fair cash value of work by the day, 
perhaps; but it is far more than farmers, who have work 
in hand on their own farms, which may be ^executed in 
the leisure season after haying, and even into the Winter, 
when convenient, will really expend for such labor. Few 
farm operations would pay expenses, if every hour of 
superintendence, and every hour of labor by man and boy 
and beast, were set down at this high' rate. 

The cost of the tiles will, ordinarily, be a cash item, and 
the labor may be performed like that of planting, hoeing, 
haying, and harvesting, by such “help” hired by the 
mouth or day, or rendered by the family, as may be found 
convenient. 

The cost of drainage may be considered conveniently, 
to borrow a clerical phrase, “ under the following heads.” 


COST OF DK AIN AGE. 


213 


1. Laying out , or Engineering. — In arranging our 
Spring’s work, we devote time and attention to laying it 
out, though this hardly forms an item in the expense of 
the crop. Most farmers may think themselves competent 
to lay out their drainage-w T orks, without paying for the 
scientific skill of an engineer, or even of a surveyor. 

It is believed, however, that generally, it will be found 
true economy, to procure the aid of an experienced en¬ 
gineer, if convenient, to lay out the work at the outset. 
Certainly, in most cases, some skill in the use of levelling 
instruments, at least, is absolutely essential to systematic 
work. No man, however experienced, can, by the eye, 
form any safe opinion of the fall of a given tract of land. 
Fields which appear perfectly level to the eye, will be 
found frequently to give fall enough for the deepest drain¬ 
age. The writer recently had occasion to note this fact 
on his own land. 

A low wet spot had many times been looked at, as a 
place which should be drained, both to improve its soil, 
and the appearance of the land about it; but to the eye, 
it seemed doubtful whether it was not about as low as the 
stream some forty rods off, into which it must be drained. 
Upon testing the matter carefully with levelling instru¬ 
ments, it was found that from the lowest spot in this little 
swamp, there was a fall of seven and a half feet to the 
river, at its ordinary height! Again, there are cases 
where it will be found upon accurate surveys, that the 
fall is very slight, so that great care will be requisite, to 
lay the drains in such a way that the descent may be con¬ 
tinuous and uniform. 

Without competent skill in laying out the work, land- 
owners will be liable not only to errors in the fall of the 
drains, but to very expensive mistakes in the location of 
them. A very few rods of drains, more than are neces- 


214 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


sary, would cost more than any charge of a competent 
person for laying them out properly. 

Again, experience gives great facility in judging of the 
under-ground flow of water, of the permeability of soil, of 
the probability of finding ledges or other rock formation, 
and many other particulars which might not suggest them¬ 
selves to a novice in the business. 

The laying out of drains is important, not only with 
reference to the work in hand, but to additional work to 
be executed in future on adjoining land, so that the whole 
may be eventually brought into one cheap and efficient 
system with the smallest effective number of drains, both 
minors and mains, and the fewest outlets possible; with 
such wells, or other facilities for inspection, as may be 
necessary. 

In the English tables of the cost of drainage by the 
Drainage Companies, an estimate of $1.25 per acre is 
usually put down for “superintendence,” which includes 
the engineering and the supervision of the whole process 
of opening, laying and filling, securing outfalls, and every 
other process till the work is completed. The general 
estimate of the cost of drainage is about $25.00 per acre, 
and this item of $1.25 is but a small per centage on that 
amount. The point has been dwelt upon here, more for 
the purpose of impressing upon land-owners, the import¬ 
ance of employing competent skill in the laying out of 
their drainage works, than because the expense thus in¬ 
curred, forms any considerable item of the cost of the 
whole work. 

2. Excavation and Filling . The principal expense of 
drainage is incurred in the excavation of the ditch, whether 
it be for tiles or for stones. The labor of excavation de¬ 
pends much upon the nature of the soil to be moved. 

“ Draining on a sound clay,” says the writer of a prize essay, free 


COST OF DRAINAGE. 


215 


from stones, may be executed at a cheaper rate per rod, in length, than 
on almost any other kind of soil, as, from the firmness of the clay, the 
work may be done with narrow spades, and but a small quantity of soil 
requires to be removed. The draining of wet sands or grounds, or clays 
in which veins of sand abound, is more expensive than on sound clays, 
because a broader spade has to be used, and consequently a larger 
amount of soil removed • and draining stony or rocky soils is still more 
expensive, because the pick has to be used. This adds considerably to 
the expense.” 

Great stress is laid, by all experienced persons, upon 
using narrow spades, and opening ditches as narrow as 
possible. 

It is somewhat more convenient for unskillful laborers to 
work in a wide ditch than in a narrow one, and although 
the laborers frequently protest that they cannot work so 
rapidly in narrow ditches, yet it is found that, in contract 
work, by the rod, they usually open the ditches very nar¬ 
row. 

Indeed, it will .be found that, generally, the cost of ex¬ 
cavation bears a pretty constant proportion to the number 
of cubic feet of earth thrown out. 

It will surprise those unaccustomed to these estimates, to 
observe how rapidly the quantity excavated, increases with 
the increased width of the ditch. 

To enable the reader accurately to compute the meas¬ 
urement of drains of any dimensions likely to be adopted, 
a table and explanations, found in the Report of the Board 
of Health, already quoted, are given below. The dimen¬ 
sions, or contents of any drain, are found by multiplying 
together the length, depth, and mean width of the drain. 

u Thus, if a drain is 300 yards long, and the cutting 3 feet deep, 20 
inches wide at the top, and 4 inches wide at the bottom, the mean 
width would be 12 inches (or the half of the sum of 20 and 4), and if 
we multiply 100, the length, by 1, the depth in yards, and by the 
mean width in yards, and the product would be 100 cubic yards. The 
following table will serve to facilitate such calculations. 


216 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Table showing the number of Cubic 'Yards of Earth in each Rod (5} Yards 
. in length ), in Drains or Ditches of various Dimensions. 


Depth. 


Mean Width. 


Inches. 

7 In. 

8 In. 

9 In. 

10 In. 

11 In. 

12 In. 

13 In. 

14 In. 

15 In. 16 In. 

17 In. 18 In. 

30.... 

0-89 

1-02 

1-146 

1-27 

1-40 

1-53 

1-655 

1-78 

1-91 

2-04 

2-164 

2-29 

33.... 

0-98 

1-12 

1-26 

1-40 

1-54 

1-68 

1-82 

1-96 

2-10 

2-24 

2-38 

2-52 

86«... 

1-07 

1-22 

1-375 

1-53 

1-68 

1-83 

1-986 

2-14 

2-29 

2-244 

2-60 

2-75 

39.... 

1-16 

1-324 

1-49 

1-655 

1-82 

1-986 

2-15 

2-32 

2-48 

2-65 

2-81 

2-98 

42.... 

1-25 

1-426 

1-604 

1-78 

1-96 

2-14 

2-32 

2-495 

2-674 

2-85 

3-03 

3-21 

4o•••. 

1-34 

1-53 

1-72 

1-91 

2-10 

2-29 

2-48 

2-67 

2-865 

3-055 

3-246 

3-438 

48.... 

1-426 

1-63 

1-833 

2-04 

2-24 

2-444 

2-65 

2-85 

3 • 056 

3-26 

3-46 

3-667 

51.... 

1-515 

1-73 

1-95 

2-164 

2-38 

2-60 

2-81 

3-03 

3-25 

3-46 

3-68 

3-896 

54.... 

1-604 

1-83 

2-06 

2-29 

2-52 

2-75 

2-98 

3-20 

3-44 

3-666 

3 • 895 

4-125 

57.... 

1-69 

1-935 

2-18 

2-42 

2-66 

2-90 

3-14 

3-38 

3-63 

3-87 

4-11 

4-354 

60.... 

1-78 

2-036 

2-29 

2-546 

2-80 

3-056 

3-31 

3-564 

3-82 

4-074 

4-33 

4-584 


£: Along the top of the table is placed the mean widths in inches, and 
on the left-hand side the depths of the drains, extending from 30 inches 
to 5 feet. The numbers in the body of the table express cubic yards, 
and decimals of a yard. In making use of the table, it is necessary 
first to find the mean width of the drain, from the widths at the top and 
bottom. Thus, if a drain 3 feet deep were 16 inches wide at the top, 
and 4 inches at the bottom, the mean width would be half of 16 added 
to 4, or 10; then, by looking in the table for the column under 10 
(width), and opposite 36 (inches of depth), we find the number of cubic 
yards in each rod of such a drain to be 1.53, or somewhat more than one 
and a half. If we compare this with another drain 2Q inches wide at 
the top, 4 inches at the bottom, and 4£ feet deep, we have the mean 
width 12, and looking at the table under 12 and opposite 54, we find 
2.75 cubic yards, or two and three-quarters to the rod. In this case, 
the quantity of earth to be removed is nearly twice as much as in the 
other, and hence, as far as regards the digging, the cost of the labor will 
be nearly double. But in the case of deep drains, the cost increases 
slightly for another reason, namely, the increased labor of lifting the 
earth to the surface from a greater depth. 5 ’ 

Under the title of the “ Depth of Drains,” other reasons 
are suggested why shallow drains are more easily wrought 
than deeper drains. The widths given in English treat¬ 
ises, and found perfectly practicable there, with proper 
drainage-tools, will seem to us exceedingly narrow. Mr. 
Parkes gives the width of the top of a four-foot drain 18 

































COST OF DRAINAGE. 


217 


inches, of a three-and-a-lialf foot drain 16 inches, and of a 
three-foot drain 12 inches. He gives the width of drains 
for tiles, three inches at bottom, and those for stones, eight 
inches. Of the cost of excavating a given number of cubic 
yards of earth from drains, it is difficult to give reliable 
estimates. In the writer’s own field, where a pick was used 
to loosen the lower two feet of earth, the labor of opening 
and filling drains 4 feet deep, and of the mean width of 14 
inches, all by hand labor, has been, in a mile of drains, 
being our first experiments, about one day’s labor to three 
rods in length. The excavated earth of such a drain, 
measures not quite three cubic yards. (Exactly, 2.85.) 

In work subsequently executed, we have opened our 
drains of 4 foot depth, but 20 inches at top, and 4 inches 
at bottom, giving a mean width of 12 inches. In one 
instance, in the Summer of 1858, two men opened 14 rods 
of such drain in one day. In six days, the same two men 
opened, laid, and filled 947 feet, or about 57J rods of such 
drain. Their labor was w r orth $12.00, or 21 cents per rod. 
The actual cost of this job was as follows: 


847 two-inch tiles, at $13 per 1,000 .$11.01 

100 three-inch 11 et for main. 2.50 

70 bushels of tan, to protect the joints.70 

Horse to haul tiles and tan.50 

Labor, 12 days, at $1. 12.00 

Total..$26.71 


This is 464 cents per rod, besides our own time and skill 
in laying out and superintending the work. The work 
was principally done with Irish spades, and was in a sandy 
soil. In the same season, the same men opened, laid, and 
filled 70 rods of four-foot drain, of the same mean width 
of 12 inches, in the worst kind of clay soil, where the 
pick w^as constantly used. It cost 35 days’ labor to com¬ 
plete the job, being 50 cents per rod for the labor alone. 
The least cost of the labor of draining 4 feet deep, on our 
10 









218 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


own land, is thus shown to be 21 cents per rod, and the 
greatest cost 50 cents per rod, all the labor being by hand. 
One-half these amounts would have completed the drains 
at 3 feet depth, as has been already shown. 

But the excavation here is much greater than is usual in 
England, Mr. Parkes giving the mean width of a four-foot 
drain but 10£ inches, instead of 14 or 12, as just given. 
Mr. Denton gives estimates of the cost, in England, of cut¬ 
ting and filling four-foot drains, which vary from 12 cents 
per rod upwards, according to the prices of labor, and 
other circumstances. 

In Hew England, where labor may be fairly rated at 
one dollar per day, the cost of excavating and filling four- 
foot drains by hand labor, must vary from 20 to 50 cents 
per rod, according to the soil, and half those amounts for 
drains of three-foot depth. 

Of the aid which may be derived from the use of drain¬ 
ing plows, or of the common plow, or subsoil plow, our 
views may be found expressed under the appropriate 
heads. That drains will long continue to be opened in 
this, fast country by hand labor, is not to be supposed, but 
we give our estimates of the expenses, at this first stage 
of our education in drainage. 

3. Cost of the Tiles . Under the title of “ The Cost of 
Tiles,’’ we have given such information as can be at pre-* 
sent procured, touching that matter. It will be assumed, 
in these estimates, that no tiles of less than li inch bore 
will be used for any purpose, and for mains, usually those 
of three-inch bore are sufficient. The proportion of length 
of mains to that of minors is small, and, considering the 
probable reduction of prices, we will, for the present, 
assume $10 per 1,000 as the prices of such mixed sizes as 
may be used. 

Add to this, the freight of them to a reasonable dis¬ 
tance, and we have the cost of the tiles on the field. The 


COST OF DRAINAGE. 


219 


weight of two-inch tiles is usually rated at about 3 lbs. 
each, though they fall short of this weight until wet. 

4. Outlets. A small per-centage should be added to the 
items already noticed, for the cost of the general outfall, 
which should be secured with great care; although, from 
such examination as the writer has made in this country, 
and in England also, in the large majority of cases, drains 
are discharged with very little precaution to protect the 
outlets. Works completed under the charge of regular 
engineers, form an exception to this remark; and an item 
of 37 cents per acre, for iron outlets and masonry, is 
usually included in the estimated cost per acre of drainage. 

5. Collars. It is not known to the author that collars 
have been at all used in America, except at the New 
York Central Park, in 1858 ; roung pipes, upon which 
they are commonly used abroad, when used on any, not 
being yet much in use here. 

In the estimates of Mr. Denton, in his tables, collars are 
set down at about half the cost of the mixed tiles. The 
bore of them being large enough to receive the end of 
the tile, increases the price in proportion to the increase 
in size. It is believed, however, that a smaller size of tiles 
may prudently be used with collars than without, because 
the collars keep the tiles perfectly in line, and freely admit 
water, while they exclude roots, sand, and other obstruc¬ 
tions. A drain laid with one and a half inch tiles with 
collars is, no doubt, better in any soil than two-inch tiles 
without collars. Some compensation for the cost of collars 
may thus be found in the less price of the smaller tiles. 

6. Laying. The cost of laying tiles is so trifling as 
hardly to be worth estimating, except to show its insig¬ 
nificance. The estimate, by English engineers, is two 
cents per rod for “ pipe laying and finishing.” What is 
included in “ finishing,” does not appear. From the per¬ 
sonal observations of the writer, it is believed that an 


220 FARM DRAINAGE. 

ft 

active maii may lay from 60 to 100 rods of tiles per day, 
in ditches well prepared. Indeed, we have seen our man 
James, lay twelve rods of two-incli tiles, in a four-foot 
ditch, in forty-five minutes, when he was not aware that 
he was working against time. This is at the rate of six¬ 
teen rods an hour, which would give just 160 rods, or a 
half-mile, in a day of ten hours. 

7. Number of Tiles to the Acre. The number of tiles 
ued depends, of course, upon the distances apart of the 
drains, and upon the length of the tiles used. 

The following table gives the number of tiles of various 
length, per acre, required at different intervals: 


Intervals between the 
Drains, in feet. 

Twelve inch 
Pipe. 

Thirteen inch 
Pipe. 

Fourteen inch 
Pipe. 

Fifteen inch 
Pipe. 

15. 

2904 

2680 

2489 

2323 

18. 

2420 

2234 

2074 

1936 

21. 

2074 

1915 

1778 

1659 

24. 

1815 

1676 

1555 

1452 

27. 

1613 

1489 

1383 

1290 

30. 

1452 

1340 

1244 

1161 

33. 

1320 

1219 

1131 

1056 

36. 

1210 

1117 

1037 

968 

39. 

1117 

1031 

957 

893 

42. 

1037 

958 

888 

829 


The following table gives the number of rods per acre 
of drains at different distances : 


Intervals between the Drains, in feet. 

Rods per acre. 

15. 

176 

146f 

1254- 

HO 

974 

88 

80 

734 

624 

18. 

21. 

24.. 

27. 

30. 

33. . . 

36. 

39. 

42. 













































COST OF DRAINAGE. 


221 


It may be remarked here, that tiles, moulded of the 
same length, vary nearly two inches when burned, accord¬ 
ing to the severity of the heat. It may be suggested, too, 
that the length of the tile, in the use of any machine, is 
entirely at the option of the maker. It is not, perhaps, 
an insult to our common humanity, to suggest to buyers 
the propriety of measuring the length as well as calibre 
of tiles before purchasing. In the estimates which will 
be made in this detail, it will be assumed that tiles will lay 
one foot each, with allowance for imperfections and break¬ 
age. This is as near as possible to accuracy, according to 
our best observation; and, besides, there is convenience 
in this simple estimate of one tile to one foot, which is 
important in practice. 

We have now the'data from wdiich we may make some 
tolerably safe estimates of the cost of drainage. With 
labor at one dollar per day, and tiles at $10 per 1,000, or 
one cent each, or one cent a foot, and ditches four feet 
deep, opened and filled at one-third of a day’s labor to the 
rod, w r e may set down the principal items of the cost of 
drainage by the rod, as follows: 

Cutting and filling per rod .... 33£ cts. 

Tiles.16f “ 

~ 50 ~ 

This is putting the tiles at one cent a foot, and the labor 
at tw T o cents a foot, or just twice as much as the cost of 
tiles, and it brings a total of half a dollar a rod, all of 
them numbers easily remembered, and convenient for 
calculation. 

By reference to the table giving the number of rods to 
the acre, the cost of labor and tiles per acre may be at 
once found, by taking half the number of rods in dollars. 
At 42 feet distance, the cost will be $31.42 per acre; at 




222 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


30 feet distance, $44; and at 60 feet, half that amount, 
or $22 per acre. 

Our views as to the frequency of drains, may be found 
under the appropriate head. 

Our estimate thus far, is of four-foot drains. We have 
shown, under the head of the “ Depth of Drains, 5 ’ that 
the cost of cutting and filling a four-foot drain is double 
that of cutting and filling a three-foot drain. There is no 
doubt, that, after all the good advice we have given on 
this subject, many, who “ grow wiser than their teachers 
are,” will set aside the teachings of the best draining 
engineers in the world, and insist that three feet deep is 
enough, and persist in so laying their tiles. 

This shallowness will reduce the cost of labor about one 
half, so that we shall have the cost of labor and tiles 
equal—one cent a foot, making 33J cents per rod, or one- 
third of a dollar, instead'of one-lialf a dollar per rod. To 
the cost of labor and tiles, we should add a fair estimate 
of the cost of the other items of engineering and outlets. 
These are trifling matters, which English tables, as has been 
shown, estimate together, at about $1.67 per acre. 

Briefly to recapitulate the elements of computation of 
the cost of drainage, we find them to be these : the price 
of labor, the price of tiles, and freight of them ; the char¬ 
acter of the soil, the depth of the drains, and their dist¬ 
ance apart, with the incidental expense of engineering 
and of outfalls, and the large additional cost of collars , 
where they are deemed necessary. 

COMPARATIVE COST OF TILE AND STONE DRAINS. 

It is not possible to answer, with precision, the question 
so often asked, as to the comparative cost of drainage 
with tiles and stones. 

The estimates given of the cost of tile drains, are based 
upon the writer’s own experience, upon his own farm 


COST OF DRAINAGE. 


223 


mainly; and the mean width of four-foot tile drains, may 
be assumed to be 14 inches, instead of 10£ inches, as 
actually practiced in England. 

For a stone drain of almost any form, certainly for any 
regular w r ater-course laid with stones, our ditch must be 
at least 21 inches wide from top to bottom. This is just 
50 per cent, more than our own estimate, and 100 per 
cent., or double the English estimate for tile drains. 

It w T ill require at least two ox-cart loads of stones to 
the rod, to construct any sort of a stone drain, costing, 
perhaps, 25 cents a load for picking up and hauling. In 
most cases, where the stones are not on the farm, it will 
cost twice that sum. We will say 25 cents per rod for 
laying the stones, though this is a low estimate. We have, 
then, for cutting and filling the ditch, 50 cents per rod, 50 
cents for hauling stone, and for laying, 25 cents per rod, 
making $1.25 a rod for a stone drain, against 50 cents per 
rod for tile drains. 

Then we have a large surplus of earth, two cart-loads 
to the rod, displaced by the two loads of stone, to be dis¬ 
posed of; and in case of the tiles, we have just earth 
enough. There are many other considerations in favor of 
tiles: such as the cutting up of the ground by teaming 
heavy loads of stones; the greater permanancy of tiles; 
and the fact that they furnish no harbor for mice and 
other vermin, as the English call such small beasts. In 
favor of stones,is the fact, that often they are on the land, 
and must be moved, and it is convenient to dispose of 
them in the ditches. 

Again, there are many parts of the country where tiles 
are not to be procured, without great cost of freight, and 
where labor is abundant at certain seasons, and money 
scarce at all seasons, so that the question is really between 
stone drains and no drains. 

Stone drains, if laid very deep, are far more secure than 


224 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


when shallow; because, if shallow, they are usually ruined 
by the breaking in of water at the top, in the Spring time, 
by the action of frost, and by the mining of mice and 
moles. If laid four feet deep, and the earth rammed 
hard above the stones, and rounded on the surface to throw 
off surface water, they may be found efficient and per¬ 
manent. 

The conclusion, however, is, that where it can be pro¬ 
cured, at any reasonable cost, drainage with tiles will gener¬ 
ally cost less than one-half the expense of drainage with 
stones, and be incomparably more satisfactory in the end. 


> 






DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


225 


CHAPTER XI. 

DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 

Unreasonable Expectations about Draining Tools.—Levelling Instruments ; 
Guessing not Accurate.—Level by a Square.—Spirit Level.—Span, or A 
Level.—Grading by Lines.—Boning-rod.—Challoner’s Drain Level.—Spades 
and Shovels.—Long-handled Shovel.—Irish Spade, Description and Cut.— 
Bottoming Tools.— Narrow Spades.—English Bottoming Tools.—Pipe- 
layer.—Pipe-laying Illustrated.—Pickaxes.—Drain Gauge.—Drain Plows, 
and Ditch-Diggers. — Fowler’s Drain Plow. — Pratt’s Ditch-Digger. — 
McEwan’s Drain Plow.—Routt’s Drain Plow. 

It seems to be a characteristic of Americans, to be dis¬ 
satisfied with every recent improvement in art or science, 
and the greater the step in advance of former times, the 
more captions and critical do we become. There is many 
a good lady, who cannot tolerate a sewing-machine, 
although she knows it will do the work of ten seam¬ 
stresses, because it will not sew on buttons and work button¬ 
holes ! ' Most of us are very much out of temper with 
the magnetic telegraph, just now, because it does not 
bring us the Court news from England every morning be¬ 
fore breakfast, though we have hourly dispatches from 
Washington, Hew Orleans, and St. Louis ; and, returning 
to our mentions, everybody is finding fault with us just 
now, because we cannot tell them of some universal, all- 
penetrating, cheap, strong, simple, enduring little imple¬ 
ment, by means of which any kind of a laborer, Scotch, 
Irish, or Yankee, may conveniently open all kinds of 
drains in all kinds of land, whether sand, hard-pan, 

gravel, or clay. 

10 * 


226 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Having personally inquired and examined, touching 
draining tools in England, and having been solicited by 
an extensive agricultural implement house in Boston, to 
furnish them a list and description of a complete set of 
draining tools, and feeling the obligation which seemed to 
be imposed on us, to know all about this matter, we wrote 
to Mr. Denton, one of the first draining engineers in the 
world, to send us a list, with drawings and descriptions of 
such implements as he finds most useful, or, if more con¬ 
venient the implements themselves. 

Mr. Denton kindly replied to our inquiry, and his an¬ 
swer may be taken as the best evidence upon this point. 
He says: 

11 As to tools, it is the same with them as it is with the art of drain¬ 
ing itself—too much rule and too much drawing upon paper; all very- 
right to begin with, but very prejudicial to progress. I employ, as en¬ 
gineer to the General Land Drainage Company, and on my private 
account, during the drainage season, as many as 2,000 men, and it is 
an actual fact, that not one of them uses the set of tools figured in 
print. I have frequently purchased a number of sets of the Birming¬ 
ham tools, and sent them down on extensive works. The laborers 
would purchase a few of the smaller tools, such as Nos. 290, 291, and 
301, figured in Morton’s excellent Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, and 
would try them, and then order others of the country blacksmith, dif¬ 
fering in several respects; less weighty and much less costly, and, more¬ 
over, much better as working tools. All I require of the cutters, is, 
that the bottom of the drain should be evenly cut, to fit the size of the 
pipe. The rest of the work takes care of itself; for a good workman 
will economize his labor for his own sake, by moving as little earth as 
practicable; thus, for instance, a first-class cutter, in clays, will get 
down four feet with a twelve-inch opening, ordinarily; if he wishes to 
slioiv off , he will sacrifice his own comfort to appearance, and will do it 
with a ten-inch opening.” 

Having thus “ freed our mind” by way of preliminary, 
we propose to take up our subject, and pursue it as prac¬ 
tically and quietly as possible to the end. It may be 
well, perhaps, first to suggest by way of explanation of 


DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


227 


Mr. Denton’s letter, above quoted, that drains are usually- 
opened in England by the yard, or rod, the laborer finding 
his own tools. 

As has been intimated, the implements convenient for 
draining, depend on many circumstances. They depend 
upon the character of the earth to be moved. A sharp, 
light spade, which may work rapidly and well in a light 
loam or sand, may be entirely unfit to drive into a stiff 
clay ; and the fancy bottoming tools which may cut out a 
soft clay or sand in nicely-measured slices, will be found 
quite too delicate for a hard-pan or gravel, where the pick¬ 
axe alone can open a passage. 

The implements again must be suited to the workman 
who handles it. Henry Ward Beecher, in speaking of 
creeds, which he, on another occasion, had said were “the 
skins of religion set up and stuffed,” remarked, that it was 
of more importance that a man should know how to make 
a practical use of his faith, than that he should subscribe 
to many articles; for, said he, “I have seen many a man 
who could do more at carpenter’s work with one old jack¬ 
knife, than another could do with a whole chest of tools!” 

What can an Irishman do with a chopping ax, and what 
cannot a Yankee do with it? Who ever saw a Scotchman 
or an Irishman who could not cut a straight ditch with a 
spade, and who ever saw a Yankee who could or would 
cut a ditch straight with any tool ? One man works best 
with a long-handled spade, another prefers a short handle; 
one drives it into the earth with his right foot, another 
with his left. A laboring man, in general, works most 
easily with such tools as he is accustomed to handle ; while 
theorizing implement-makers, working out their pattern by 
the light of reason, may produce such a tool as a man 
ought to work with, without adapting it at all to the capa¬ 
city or taste of the laborer. A man should be measured 
for his tools, as much as for his garment, and not be 


228 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


I 


expected to fit himself to another’s notions more than to 
another’s coat. 

If the land-owner proposes to act as his own engineer, 
the first instrument he will want to use is a Spirit 
Level, or some other contrivance by which he may 
ascertain the variations of the surface of his field. The 
natural way for a Yankee to get at the grades is to 
guess at them, and this, practically, is what is usually 
done. Ditches are opened where there appears to be a 
descent, and if there is water running, the rise is estimated 
by its current; and if there is no water rising in the drain, 
a bucketfull is occasionally poured in to guide the laborer 
in his work. No one who has not tested the accuracy, or, 
rather, inaccuracy, of his judgment, as to the levels of 
fields, can at all appreciate the deceitfulness of appear¬ 
ances on this point. The human eye will see straight; 
but it will not see level without a guide. It forms con¬ 
clusions by comparison ; and the lines of upland, of forest 
tops and of distant hills, all conspire to confuse the judg¬ 
ment, so that it is quite common for a brook to appear to 
the eye to run up hill, even when it has a quick cur¬ 
rent. A few trials with a spirit-level will cure any man 
of his conceit on this subject. 

And so it is as to the regular inclination of the bottom 
of drains. It is desirable not only to have an inclination 
all the way, but a regular inclination, as nearly as possible, 
especially if the descent be small. Workmen are very apt 
to work at a uniform depth from the surface, and so give 
the bottom of the drain the same variations as the surface 
line; and thus at one point there may be a fall of one inch 
in a rod ; at another, twice that fall; and at another, a dead 
level, or even a hollow. On our own farm, we have found, 
in twelve rods, a variation of a foot in the bottom line of a 
drain opened by skillful workmen on a nearly level field, 
where they had no water to guide them, and where they 
had supposed their fall was regular throughout. 


DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


229 


The following sketch shows the difference between lines 
of tiles laid with and without instruments. Next to guessing 






Pig. 54. 


at the fall in our field, may be placed a little contrivance, 
of which we have made use sufficiently to become satis¬ 
fied of its want of practical accuracy. It is thus figured 

tt' i |TpT' 111 q!| and described in the excellent 
treatise of Thomas, on Farm 
Implements. 

u A is a common square, placed 
in a slit In the top of the stake B. 
By means of a plumb-line the square 
is brought to a level, when a thumb¬ 
screw, at C, fixes it fast If the 
square is two feet long, and is so 
carefully adjusted as not to vary more 
than the twentieth of an inch from 
a true level, which is easily accom¬ 
plished, then a twentieth of an inch 
in two feet will be one inch in forty 
feet—a sufficient degree of accuracy 
Fig. 55. —Square and Plumb-Level. f° r Ulan) cases. 

We do not so much object to the principle of the above 
level, as to its practical working. We find it difficult, 
without cross sights, to take an accurate level with any 
instrument. However, those who are used to rifle-shoot¬ 
ing may hit tolerably near the mark with the square. 
Mr. Thomas only claims that it is accurate enough “ for 
many cases.” 

A proper spirit-level, such as is used by engineers of 
railroads and canals, attached to. a telescope, is the best 
of all instruments. “ So great is the perfection of this 



























230 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


instrument,” says the writer just quoted, “ that separate 
lines of levels have been run with it, for sixtv miles, with- 
out varying two-tliirds of an inch for the whole distance.” 
A cheap and convenient spirit-level, for our purpose, is 
thus constructed. 

It is furnished with eye sights, a 6, and ? 
when in use, is placed into a framing of 
brass which operates as a spring to adjust 
it to the level position, d, by the action of 
the large-headed brass screw, c. A stud 
is affixed to the framing, and pushed firmly 
into a gimlet-hole in the top of the short 
rod, which is pushed or driven into the 
ground at the spot from whence the level 
is desired to be ascertained. It need 
scarcely be mentioned, that the height of 
the eye sight, from the guard, is to be 
deducted from the height of observation, 
which quantity is easily obtained by hav¬ 
ing the rod marked off in inches and feet; 
but it may be mentioned, that tiffs instru¬ 
ment should be used in all cases of draining 
on level ground, even when one is con¬ 
fident that he knows the fall of the ground ; 
for the eye is a very deceitful monitor for 
informing you of the levelness of ground. 

It is so light as to admit of being carried 
in the pocket, whilst its rod may be used Fig. 56 —Spirit Level. 
as a staff or cane. 

A staff of ten feet in length, graduated in feet and 
inches, and held by an attendant at the various points of 
observation, is necessary in the use of the spirit-level in 
the field. A painted target, arranged with a slide to be 
moved up and down on this staff, and held by a thumb¬ 
screw, will be found useful. 




























DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


231 


We have made for our own use a level Fig ' 57, 
like the above, and finff it sufficiently 
accurate for drainage purposes. Small 
spirit-levels set in iron can be had at the 
hardware shops for twenty cents each, and 
can be readily attached to wood by a 
screw, in constructing our implement; or I=: 
a spirit-level set in mahogany, of suitable 
size, may be procured for a half dollar, 
and any person, handy with tools, can do 
the rest. The sights should be arranged 
botli ways, with a slit cut with a chisel 
through the brass or tin, and an oblong 
opening at each end. The eye is placed 
at the slit, and sight is taken by a hair 
or fine thread, drawn across the opening 
at the other end. Then, by changing ends, 
and sighting through the other end at a staff and takget. 
given object, any error in the instrument may be detected. 
The hair or thread may be held in place by a little 
wax, and moved up or down till it is carefully adjusted. 
The instrument should turn upon the staff in all directions, 
so that the level of a whole field, so far as it is within 
range, may be taken from one position. 

To maintain a uniform grade in the bottom of a drain, 
so as to economize the fall, and distribute it equally 
through the whole length, several different instruments 
and means may be adopted. The first which we will 
figure, is what is called the Span, or A Level. Such a 
level may be easily constructed of common inch-board. 
If it be desired to note the fall in feet, the span may con¬ 
veniently be ten feet. If a notation in rods be preferred, 
the span should be a rod, or half rod long. 

The two feet being placed on a floor, and ascertained 










232 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


to be perfectly level by a spirit-level, the plumb-line will 
bang in the centre, where a distlhct mark should be made 



on the cross-bar. Then place a block of wood, exactly an 
inch thick, under one leg, and mark the place where the 
line crosses the bar. Put another block an inch thick 
under the same leg, and again mark where the line crosses 
the bar, and so on as far as is thought necessary. Then 
put the blocks under the other leg in the same manner, 
and mark the cross-bar. If the span be ten feet, the 
plumb-line will indicate upon the bar, by the mark which 
it crosses, the rise or fall in inches, in ten feet. If the 
span be a rod, the line will indicate the number of inches 
per rod of the rise or fall. 

This instrument is used thus: The fall of the ditch 
from end to end being ascertained by the spirit-level, and 
the length also, the fall per rod, or per one hundred feet, 
may be computed. The span is then placed in the bottom 
of the drain, from time to time, to guide the workman, or 
for accurate inspection of the finished cut. We have 
constructed and used this level, and found it very con¬ 
venient to test the accuracy of the workmen, who had 
opened drains in our absence. A ten-foot span will be found 
as large as can be conveniently carried about the farm. 

For the accurate grading of the bottom of drains, as 
the work proceeds, we have in practice found nothing so 
convenient and accurate as the arrangement which we 
are about to illustrate. 





DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


233 


The object is simply to draw a line parallel with the 
proposed bottom of the drain, for the laborers to work 



under, so that they, as they proceed, may measure down 
from it, as a guide to depth. Having with the spirit- 
level, ascertained the fall from end to end of the drain, a 
short stake is set at each end, and a line is drawn from 
one to the other at the requisite height, and supported by 
the cross-pieces, at suitable distances, to prevent the 
sagging of the line. 

Suppose the drain to be ten rods long, and that it is in¬ 
tended to cut it four feet deep, the natural fall being, from 
end to end, sufficient. We drive a stake at each end of 
the drain, high enough to attach to it a line three feet 
above the surface, which will be seven feet above the 
bottom of the finished drain—high enough to be above the 
heads of the cutters, when standing near the bottom. 

Before drawing the line, the drain may be nearly com¬ 
pleted. Then drive the intermediate stakes, with the pro¬ 
jecting arms, which we will call squares, on one side of 
the drain, carefully sighting from one end of the stake to 
the other, at the point fixed for the line, and driving the 
squares till they are exactly even. Then attach a strong 
small cord, not larger than a chalk line, to one of the 
stakes, and draw it as tight as it will bear, and secure it 



























234 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


at the other stake. The line is now directly over the 
middle of the drain, seven feet from the bottom. Give 
the cutters, then, a rod seven feet long, and let them cut 
just deep enough for the rod to stand on the bottom and 
touch the line. Practically, this has been found by the 
author, the most accurate and satisfactory method of 
bringing drains to a regular grade. 

Instead of a line, after the end stakes have been placed, 
a boning rod , as it is called, may be used thus : A staff is 
used, with a cross-piece at the top, and long enough, when 
resting on the proper bottom of the drain, to reach to the 
level of the marks on the stakes, three feet above the 
surface. Cross-pieces nailed to the stakes are the most 
conspicuous marks. A person stands at one stake sight¬ 
ing along to the other; a second person then holds the 
rod upright in the ditch, just touching the bottom, and 
carries it thus along. If, while it is moved along, its top 
is always in a line with the cross-bars on the end stakes, 
the fall is uniform; if it rise above, the bottom of the 
drain must be lowered ; if it fall below, the bottom of the 
drain must be raised. This may be convenient enough 
for mere inspection of works, but it requires two persons 
besides the cutters, to finish the drain by this mode ; 
whereas, with the lines and squares, any laborer can com¬ 
plete the work with exactness. 

Another mode of levelling, by means of a mammoth 
mason’s level, with an improvement, was invented by 
Colonel Clialloner, and published in the Journal of the 
Koyal Agricultural Society. It may appear to some per¬ 
sons more simple than the span level. We give the cut 
and explanation. 

‘ I first ascertain what amount of fall I can obtain, from the head 
of every drain to my outfall. Suppose the length of the drain to be 
96 yards, and I find I have a fall of tw r o feet, that gives me a fall of 
a quarter of an inch in every yard. I take a common bricklayer’s 


DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


235 


level 12 feet long, to the bottom of ‘which I attach, with screws, a 
piece of wood the whole length, one inch wider at one end than at the 
other, thereby throwing the level one inch out of the true horizontal 



line. When the drain has got to its proper depth at the outfall, I apply 
the broadest end of the level to the mouth; and when the plumb-bob 
indicates the level to be correct, the one-inch fall has been gained in 
the four yards, and so on. I keep testing the drain as it is dug, quite 
up to the head, when an unbroken, even, and continuous fall of two 
feet in the whole 96 yards has been obtained.” 


V 


¥ 


SPADES AND SHOVELS. 

No peculiar tool is essential in opening that part of the 

drain which is more than a foot in 
width. Shovels and spades, of the 
forms usually found upon well-fur¬ 
nished farms, and adapted to its 
soil, will be found sufficient. A 
Boston agricultural house, a year 
or two since, sent out an order to 
London for a complete sot of drain¬ 
ing tools. In due season, they re¬ 
ceived, in compliance with their 
order, three spades of different width, like those repre¬ 
sented in the cut. 

These are understood to be the tools in common use in 




Fig. 61, 62, 63.—Dkain Spades. 


























236 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Fig. 64. 




Spade with 
Spue. 


England and Scotland, for sod-draining, and 
for any other drains, indeed, except tiles. The 
widest is 12 inches wide, and is used to re¬ 
move the first spit, of about one foot depth. 
The second is 12 inches wide at top, and 8 
at the point, and the third, eight at top, and 
four at the point. The narrowest spade is 
usually made with a spur in front, or what 
the Irish call a treader , on which to place the 
foot in driving it into the earth. 

For w T edge drains, these spades are made 
narrower than those above represented, the 
finishing spade being but two and a half inches 
wide at the point. It will be recollected that 
this kind of drainage is only adapted to clay 
land. The shovels and spades which have 
been heretofore in most common use in Hew England 
are made with short handles, thus— 

They are of cast-steel, and 
combine great strength and 
lightness. Long-handled shov¬ 
els and spades are much pre¬ 
ferred, usually, by Irish labor¬ 
ers, whose fancy is worth con¬ 
sulting in matters with which 
they have so much to do. We 
believe their notion is correct, 
that the long-handled tool is 
the easier to work with, at 
almost any job. 

In our own draining, we 
find the common spade, with 
long or short handle, to be 
best in marking out the lines 
in turf; and either the spade 
or common shovel, according Fls3 ' 65 ’ 66_c s 0 p"X s Sn0VEL AN!> 







































































DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


237 


to the nature of the soil, most convenient in removing the 
first foot of earth. 

After this, if the pick is used, a long-handled round- 
pointed shovel, now in common use on our farms, is found 
convenient, until the ditch is too narrow for its use. Then 
the same shovel, turned up at the sides so as to form a 
narrow scoop, will be found better than any tool we yet 
have to remove this loosened earth. 

Of all the tools that we have 
ever seen in the hands of an 
Irishman, in ditching, nothing 
approximates to the true Irish 
spade. It is a very clumsy, un¬ 
gainly-looking implement used 
in the old country both for ditch¬ 
ing, and for ridging for potatoes, 
being varied somewhat in width, 
according to the intended use. 

For stony soil, it is made narrower 
and stronger, while for the bog 
it is broader and lighter. The 
Irish blacksmiths in this country 
usually know how to make them, 
and we have got up a pattern of them, which are manufac¬ 
tured by Laighton and Lufkin, edge-tool makers, of Au¬ 
burn, J$. H., which have been tested, and found to suit the 
ideas of the Irish workmen. 

This is a correct portrait of an Irish spade of our own 
pattern, which has done more in opening two miles of 
drains on our own farm, than any other implement. 

The spade of the Laighton and Lufkin pattern weighs 
5 lbs., without the handle, and is eighteen inches long. 
It is of iron, except about eight inches of the blade, 
which is of cast steel, tempered and polished like a chop¬ 
ping axe. It is considerably curved, and the workmen 
suit their own taste as to the degree of curvature, by put- 



238 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


ting the tool under a log or rock, and bending it to suit 
themselves. It is a powerful, strong imple¬ 
ment, and will cut off a root of an inch or 
two diameter as readily as an axe. The han¬ 
dle is of tough ash, and held in place by a 
wedge driven at the side of it, and can be 
knocked out readily when the spade needs 
new steel, or any repair. The length of the 
handle is three feet eight inches, and the 
diameter about one and one-fourth inches. The 
wedge projects, and forms a “ treader,” broad 
and firm, on which the foot comes down, 
to drive the spade into the ground. 

We have endeavored to have the market 
supplied with the Irish spades, because, in the 

hands of such Irishmen as have used them 

• 

“ at home,” we find them a most effective 
tool. We are met with all sorts of reason¬ 
able theoretical objections on the part of im¬ 
plement sellers, and of farmers, who never 
saw an Irish spade in use. “Would not the 
tool be better if it were wider and lighter,” 
asks one. “I think it would be better if the 
spur, or “ treader,” were movable and of 
iron, so as to be put on the other side or in 
front,” suggests another. “ It seems as if 
it would work better, if it were straight,” 
adds a third. u Would it not hold the 
dirt better if it were a little hollowing on the front,” 
queries a fourth “ No doubt,” we reply, “ there might 
be a very good implement made, wider and lighter, 
without a wooden treader, and turned up at the sides, to 
hold the earth better, but it would not be an Irish spade 
when finished. Your theories may be all correct and de¬ 
monstrable by the purest mathematics, but the question 
is, with what tool will Patrick do the most work ? If he 


Fig. 69. —Iris 
Spade. 





























DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


239 


recognizes the Irish spade as an institution of his country, 
as a part of 6 home,’ you might as well attempt to rea^n 
him out of his faith in the Pope, as convince him that his 
spade is not perfect.” Our man, James, believes in the in¬ 
fallibility of both. There is no digging on the farm that 
his spade is not adapted to. To mark out a drain in 
the turf by a line, he mounts his spade with one foot, and 
hops backward on the other, with a celerity surprising to 
behold. Then he cuts the sod in squares, and, with a 
sleight of hand, which does not come by nature, as Dog¬ 
berry says reading and writing come, throws out the first 
spit. When he comes on to the gravel or hard clay, 
where another man would use a pick-axe, his heavy boot 
comes down upon the treader, and drives the spade a foot 
or more deep ; and if a root is encountered, a blow or two 
easily severs it. The last foot at the bottom of the four- 
foot drain, is cut out for the sole-tile only four and a half 
inches wide, and the sides of the ditch are kept trimmed, 
even and straight, with the sharp steel edge. And it is 
pleasant to hear James express his satisfaction with his 
national implement. “ And, sure, we could do nothing 
at this job, sir, without the Irish spade !” “And, sure, I 
should like to see a man that will spade this hard clay 
with anything else, sir!” On the whole, though the Irish 
spade does wonders on our farm, we recommend it only 
for Irishmen, who know how to handle it. In our own 
hands, it is as awkward a thing as we ever took hold 
of, and we never saw any man but an Irishman, who could 
use it gracefully and effectively. 

Bottoming Tools .—The only tools which are wanted of 
peculiar form in draining, are such as are used in forming 
the narrow part of the trenches at the bottom. We can 
get down two feet, or even three, with the common spade 
and pick-axe, and in most kinds of drainage, except with 
tiles, it is necessary to have the bottom as wide, at least, 


% 


240 . FARM DRAINAGE. 


as a spade. In tile-draining, the narrower the trench the 
better, and in laying cylindrical pipes without collars, the 
bottom of the drain should exactly fit the pipes, to hold 
them in line. 

Although round pipes are generally used in England, 
we have known none used in America until the past 
season—the sole-pipe taking their place. As the sole-pipe 
has a flat bottom, a different tool is required to finish its 
resting-place, from that adapted to the round pipe. As 
we have not, however, arrived quite at the bottom, we 
wdll return to the tools for removing the last foot of 
earth. 

And first, we give from Morton, the Birmingham spades 
referred to by Mr. Denton, in his letter, quoted in this 
chapter. They are the theoretically perfect tools for 
removing the last eighteen or twenty inches of soil in a 
four or five-foot drain. Mr. Gisborne says of the drain 
properly formed: 


“ It is wrought in the shape 
of a wedge, brought in the bot¬ 
tom to the narrowest limit which 
will admit the collar, by tools 
admirably adapted to that pur¬ 
pose. The foot of the operator 
is never within twenty inches of 
the floor of the drain; his tools 
are made of iron, plated on steel, 
and never lose their sharpness, 
even when worn to the stumps; 
because, as the softer material, 
the iron, wears away, the sharp 
steel edge is always prominent. 

This poetical view of 
digging drains, meets us at 
every turn, and we are 
beset with inquiries for 


Fig 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 72. 



Birmingham Spades. 








































DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


241 


these wonderful implements. We do not intimate that 
Mr. Gisborne, and those who so often quote the above 
language, are not reliable. Mr. Gisborne “ is an honorable 
man, so are they all honorable menbut we must reform 
our tiles, and our land too, most of it, we fear, before we 
can open four-foot trenches, and lay pipes in them, with¬ 
out putting a foot “ within twenty inches of the floor of 
the drain.” 

In the first place, we have great doubt whether pipes 
can be laid close enough to make the joints secure with¬ 
out collars, unless carefully laid by hand, or unless they 
are round pipes, rolled in the making, when half dried, 
and so made straight and even at the ends. In laying 
such sole-pipes as we have laid, it requires some care to 
adjust them, so as to make the joints close. Most of them 
are warped in drying or burning, so that spaces of half an 
inch will often be left at the top or side, where two are 
laid end to end. Now, if the foot never goes to the bottom 
of the drain, the pipes must be laid with a hook or pipe- 
layer, such as will be presently described, which may do 
well for pipes and collars, because the collar covers the 
joint, so that it is of no importance if it be somewhat 
open. 

Again, we know of no method of working with a pick¬ 
axe, except by standing as low as the bottom of the work. 
No man can pick twenty inches, or indeed any inches, 
lower than he stands, because he must move forward in * 
this work, and not backward. Each land-owner may 
judge for himself, whether his land requires the pick in 
its excavation. 

In soft clays, no doubt, with suitable tools, the trench 
may be cut a foot, or more, lower than the feet of the 
workman. We have seen it done in our land, in a sandy 
soil, with the Irish spade, though, as we used sole-pipes, 

“ pipe-layer” was a live Irishman, who walked in the 
11 


our 


242 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Fig. 74. 


trench backwards, putting down the pipes with his 
hand. 

We are satisfied, that the instances in which trenches 
may be opened a foot or two below the feet of the work¬ 
men, are the exceptions, and not the rule, and that in 
laying sole-tiles, the hand of a careful workman must 
adjust each tile in its position. 

We have found a narrow spade, four inches wide, with 
a long handle, a convenient tool for finishing drains for 
sole-tiles. 

We have thoroughly tested 
the matter; and in all kinds of 
soil, give a decided preference 
to spades as broad at the point 
as at the heel. We have used 
common long-handled spades, 
cut down with shears at a ma¬ 
chine-shop, into these shapes. 

The spade of equal wfidth, 
works much more easily in the 
bottom of a trench, because its 
corners do not catch, as do 
those of the other. The pointed 
spade is apparently nearer the 
shape of the sloping ditch, but 
such tools cannot be used ver¬ 
tically, and wdien the heel of 
the pointed spade is lowered, it 
catches in the side of the trench, 
before the point reaches the 

bottom. Naeeow Spades foe Tiles. 

A ery strong spades, of various width, from three to 
eight inches, and thick at the heel, to operate as a w T edge, 
will be found most suitable for common use. The 
narrowest spades should have the spur, as shown in Fig. 











































DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


243 


64, because there is not room for the foot by the side of 
the handle. 

The various tools for finishing the bottoms of drains, as 
figured in Morton, are the following * 




Fig. 77. Fig. 78. 


English Bottoming Tools. 



The last implement, which is a scoop for the bottom of 
trenches for round pipes, is one of the tools mentioned in 
Mr. Denton’s letter, as not being found to the taste of his 
workmen. For scooping out our flat-bottomed trenches, 
we use a tool like Fig. 77. For boggy land, soft clay, or, 
indeed, any land where water is running at the time of 

































244 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the excavation, scoops like the following will be found 
convenient for flat bottoms. 



Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. 

Drawing and Pushing Scoop, and Pipe-Later. 

ft 

The pushing scoop (Fig. 81), as it is called, may be made 
of a common long-handled shovel, turned up at the sides 
by a blacksmith, leaving it of the desired width. 

The pipe-layer, of which mention has so often been 
made, is a little implement invented by Mr. Parkes, for 
placing round pipes and collars in narrow trenches, with¬ 
out stepping into them. 

The following sketch, by our friend Mr. Shedd, shows the 
pipe-layer in use. The cross section of the land, shown in 
front, represents it as having had the advantage of 
draining, by which the water-table is brought to a level 
with the bottom of the drain, as shown by the heavy shad- 



















DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


245 



ing. An u Irisli spade” and a pipe-layer are shown lying 
on the ground. 


Fig. 83 .—Pipe-Laying. 

The jpick-axes commonly used in excavation of trenches, 
are in the following forms : 



























































































































246 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Pick-axes may be light or heavy, according to the na¬ 
ture of the soil. A chisel at one end, and point at the 
other, is found best in most cases. 

Q A Drain-gauge is usually mentioned in a 

a list of draining tools. It is used when ditches 

11 are designed for stone or other material than 

tiles, and where the width is important. In 
tile-draining the width is entirely immaterial. 
If opened by the rod, it is only important that 
they be of proper depth and inclination, with 
1 — y 1 73 the bottom wide enough for the tile. 

i The above figure shows the usual form of 

the drain-gauge. Below, w^e give from Mor- 
"■ ton, drawings, and a description of Elkington’s 

r~~~i augers for boring in the bottoms of ditches. 


Fig.^6.— Drain- “The cut annexed represents the auger employed 

by Elkington, where a b and c are different forms of 
the tool; e?, a portion of the shaft ; e, with the wedges, h h , the cross 
handle: and / and g additional pieces for grasping the shaft, and so 
enabling more than one person to work at it.” The auger-hole ought 
to be a little at one side of the drain, as in Fig. 3, at page 35, so 
that the water may not rise at right angles to the flow of water in it, 
and obstruct its current. 






















































































































































DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


247 


DRAINING-PLOWS AND DITCH-DIGGERS. 

The man who can invent and construct a machine that 
shall be capable of cutting four-foot ditches for pipe-drains, 
with facility, will deserve well of his country. 

It is not essential that the drain be cut to its full depth 
at one operation. If worked by oxen or horses, it may go 
several times over the work, taking out a few inches at 
each time. If moved by a capstan, or other slowly-oper¬ 
ating power, it must work more thoroughly, so as not to 
consume too much time. 

With a lever, such as is used in Willis’s Stump Puller, 
sufficient power for any purpose may be applied. An 
implement like a subsoil plow, constructed to run four 
feet deep, and merely doing the work of the pick, would 
be of great assistance. Prof. Mapes says he has made 
use of such an implement with great advantage. For tile- 
drains, the narrower the ditch the better, if it be only 
wide enough to receive the tiles. A mere slit, four inches 
wide, if straight and of even inclination at the bottom, 
would be the best kind of ditch, the pipes being laid in 
with a pipe-layer. But if the ditch is to be finished by 
the machine, it is essential that it be so contrived that it 
will grade the bottom, and not leave it undulating like 
the surface. Fowler’s Drain Plow is said to be so arrang¬ 
ed, by improvements since its first trials, as to attain this 
object. 

Having thus briefly suggested some of the points to be 
kej)t in mind by inventors, we will proceed to give some 
account of such machines as come nearest to the wants of 
the community. Fowler’s Draining-Plow would meet 
the largest wants of the public, were it cheap enough, 
and really reliable to perform what it is said to perform. 
The author saw this implement in England, but not in 
operation, and it seems impossible, from insjiection of it, 


248 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


as well as from tlie theory of its operation, that it can suc¬ 
ceed, if at all, in any but soft homogeneous clay. The 
idea is, however, so bold, and so much is claimed for the 
implement, that some description of it seems indispensa¬ 
ble in a work like this. 

The pipes, of common drain tiles, are strung on a rope, 
and this rope, with the pipes, is drawn through the 
ground, following a plug like the foot of a subsoil plow, 
leaving the pipes perfectly laid, and the drain completed 
at a single operation. (See Fig. 88.) 

The work is commenced by opening a short piece of 
ditch by hand, and strings of pipes, each about 50 feet 
long, are added as the work proceeds; and when the ditch 
is completed, the rope is withdrawn. When the surface 
is uneven, the uniform slope is preserved by means of a 
wheel and screw, which governs the plug, or coulter, 
raising or lowering it at pleasure. A man upon the 
framework controls this wheel, guided by a sight on the 
frame, and a cross-staff at the end of the field. 

Drains, 40 rods long, are finished at one operation. 
This plow has been carefully tested in England. Its work 
has been uncovered when completed, and found perfect in 
every respect. The great expense of the machine, and 
the fact that it is only adapted to clay land free from ob¬ 
structions, has prevented its general use. We cannot 
help believing that, by the aid of steam, on our prairies, 
at least, some such machine may be found practicable and 
economical. 

pratt’s ditch digger, 

Patented by Pratt & Bro., of Canandaigua, is attracting 
much attention. We have not seen it in operation, nor 
have we seen statements which satisfy us that it is just 
what is demanded. It is stated, in the Country Gentle¬ 
man , to be incapable of cutting a ditch more than two 
and a half feet deep. A machine that will do so much is 


DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


249 


not to be despised j but more than one half the digging 
remains of a tour-foot ditch, after two and a half feet are 
opened, and we want an implement to do the lowest and 
worst half. It is stated that, in one instance, a ditch, 60 
rods long, about two feet deep, in hard clay, was cut with 
this machine, worked by two horses, in five hours. 

We trust that the enterprising inventors will perfect 
their implement, so that it will open drains four feet 
deep, and thus meet the great want of the public. It is 
not to be expected that any such implement can be made 
to operate in ground full of stones and roots; and inven¬ 
tors should not be discouraged by the continual croakings 
of those sinister birds, which see nothing but obstacles, 
and prophecy only failure. 



Fig. 89 .—Pkatt’s Ditch Digger. 


The drain plow was first introduced into Scotland by 
M’Ewan. The soil in his district was mostly a strong 
unctuous clay, free from stones. He constructed an im¬ 
mense plow, worked by 12 or 16 horses, by means of which 
a furrow-slice, 16 inches in depth, was turned out; and, 
by a modification of the plow, a second slice was removed, 
to the depth, in all, of two feet. This plow is expensive 
and heavy, and incapable of working to sufficient depth. 

Mr. Paul, of Norfolk Co., England, has lately invented 
an ingenious machine for cutting drains, of which we give 
an elevation. 

It is worked by a chain and capstan, by horses, and, of 

11 * 

















250 


FAEM DE AIN AGE. 


course, may be operated by steam or lever power. It is 
drawn forward, and, as it moves, it acts as a slotting ma¬ 
chine on the land, the tools on the circumference of the 
acting-wheel taking successive bites of the soil, each 
lifting a portion from the full depth to which it is desired 



that the trench should be 
cut, and laying the earth 
thus removed on the sur¬ 
face at either side. There 
is a lifting apparatus at the 
end of the machine, by 
which the cutting - wheel 
may be raised or lowered, 
according to the unevenness 
of the surface, in order to 
secure a uniform fall in the 
bottom of the drain. The 
whole process is carried on 
at the rate of about four 
feet per minute, and it re¬ 
sults, on suitable soils, in 
cutting a drain from three 
to five feet deep, leaving it 
in a finished state, with a 
level bottom for the tiles to 
rest upon. "We give the 
cut and statement from the 
Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, 
and if the machine shall 
prove what it is represented 
to be, we see but little more 
to be desired in a ditching 
machine. The principle of 
this implement appears to 
us to be the correct one, 



























DRAINING IMPLEMENTS. 


251 


and we see no reason to doubt the statement of its 
performance. 

Routt’s drain plow is designed for surface-draining 
merely. We give, from the New England Farmer , a 
statement of its merits, as detailed by a correspondent 
who saw it at the exhibition of the IJ. S. Agricultural 
Society at Richmond, in 1858: 

“ One of the most attractive implements on the Fair 
ground, to the farmer, was A. P. Routt’s patent drain 
plow. This implement makes a furrow a foot deep, two 
feet and a half wide at the top, and four inches wide at 
the bottom, the sides sloping at such an angle as to insure 
the drain from falling in by the frost, the whole being 
perfectly completed at one operation by this plow, or 
tool. Those who have tried it say it is the very thing for 
surface-draining, which, on wet lands, is certainly very 
beneficial where under : draining has not been done. The 
manufacturer resides in Somerset, Orange County, Ya. 
The plow is so made that it opens a deep furrow, turning 
both to the right and left, and is followed by a heavy iron 
roller that hardens the earth, both on the sides and the 
bottom of the surface-drain, thus doing very handsome 
work. The price, as heretofore stated, is $25, and with it, 
a man can, with a good pair of team horses, surface-drain 
60 acres of land a day.” 


252 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER XII. 

PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR OPENING DRAINS AND LAYING 

TILES. 

Begin at the Outlet.—Use of Plows.—Levelling the Bottom.—Where to 
begin to lay Pipes. — Mode of Procedure.—Covering Pipes.—Securing 
Joints.—Filling.—Securing Outlets.—Plans. 


In former chapters, we have spoken minutely of the 
arrangement, depth, distance, and width of drains; and in 
treating of tools for drainage, we have sufficiently de¬ 
scribed the use of levelling instruments and of the various 
digging tools. 

We assume here, that the engineering has been already 
done, and that the whole system has been carefully staked 
out, so that every main, sub-main, and minor is distinctly 
located, and the fall accurately ascertained. Until so 
much has been accomplished, we are unprepared to put 
the first spade into the ground. 

We propose to give our own experience as to the con¬ 
venient method of procedure, with such suggestions as 
occur to us, for those who are differently situated from 
ourselves. 

The work of excavation must begin at the outlet, so 
that whatever water is met with, may pass readily away; 
and the outlet must be kept always low enough for this 
purpose. If there is considerable fall, it may not be best 
to deepen the lower end of the main to its full extent, at 
first, because the main, though first opened, must be the 


PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 


253 


last in which the pipes are laid, and may cave in, if un¬ 
necessarily deep at first. In many cases there is fall 
enough, so that the upper minors may be laid and find 
sufficient fall, before the lower end of the main is half 
opened. 

With a garden line drawn straight, mark out the drain, 
with a sharp spade, on both sides, and remove the turf. 
If it is desired to use the turf for covering the pipes, or 
to replace it over the drains, when finished, it should at 
first be placed in heaps outside the line of the earth to be 
thrown out. 

A plow is used sometimes to turn out the sod and soil; 
but we have few plowmen who can go straight enough ; 
and in plowing, the soil is left too near to the ditch for 
convenience, and the turf is torn in pieces and buried, so 
as not to be fit for use. Usually, it will be found con¬ 
venient to remove the turf, if there be any, with a spade, 
by a line. Then, a plow may be used for turning out the 
next spit, and the drain may be kept straight, which is 
indispensable to good work. A good ditching-machine 
is, of course, the thing needful; but we are endeavoring 
in these directions to do our best without it. We have 
opened our own trenches entirely by hand labor, finding 
laborers more convenient than oxen or horses, and no 
more expensi ve. 

Many have used the plow in the first foot or two of the 
cutting, but it is not here “ the first step which costs,” but 
the later steps. After the first foot is removed, if the 
ground be hard, a pick or subsoil plow must be used. A 
subsoil plow, properly constructed, may be made very 
useful in breaking up the subsoil, though there is a diffi¬ 
culty in working cattle astride of a deep ditch, encum¬ 
bered with banks of earth. A friend of ours used, in 
opening drains, a large bull in single harness, trained to 
walk in the ditch ; but the width of a big bull is a some- 


254 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


what larger pattern for a drain, than will be found eco¬ 
nomical. 

The ingenuity of farmers in the use of a pair of heavy 
wheels, with a chain attached to the axle, so that the cattle 
may both walk on one side of the ditch, or by the use of 
long double-trees, so that horses may go outside the banks 
of earth, will generally be found sufficient to make the 
most of their means. 

It will be found convenient to place the soil at one side, 
and the subsoil at the other, for convenience in returning 
both right side up to their places. 

Having worked down to the depth of two feet or more, 
the ditch should be too narrow for the use of common 
spades, and the narrow tools already described will be 
found useful. The Irish spade, on our own fields, is in 
use from the first to the last of the excavation; and at three 
feet depth, we have our trench but about six inches in 
width, and at the bottom, at four feet depth, it is but four 
inches—-just wide enough for the laborer to stand in it, with 
one foot before the other. 

Having excavated to nearly our depth, we use the lines, 
as described in another place, for levelling, and the men 
working under them, grade the bottom as accurately as 
possible. If flat-bottomed tiles are used, the ditch is ready 
for them. If round pipes are used, a round bottoming 
tool must be used to form a semi-circular groove in which 
the pipes are to lie. 

We have not forgotten that English drainers tell us of 
tools and their use, whereby drains may be open twenty 
inches lower than the feet of the workman ; but we have 
never chanced to see that operation, and are skeptical as 
to the fact that work can thus be performed economically, 
except in very peculiar soils. That such a crack may be 
thus opened, is not doubted; but we conceive of no means 
by which earth, that requires the pick, can be moved to 


PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 


255 


advantage, without the workman standing as low as his 
work. 

Having opened the main, and finished, as we have de¬ 
scribed, the minor which enters the main at its highest 
point, we are ready to lay the tiles. 

By first laying the upper drain, it will be seen that we 
may finish and secure our work to the junction of the first 
minor with its main. 

Convey the pipes by wagon or otherwise, as is con¬ 
venient, to the side of the ditch where the soil lies, and 
where there is least earth, and lay them close to the edge 
of the ditch, end to end the whole way, discarding all im¬ 
perfect pieces. If it is designed to use gravel, turf, or 
other covering for the pipes, lay it also in heaps along the 
trench. Then place the first pipe at the upper end of the 
ditch, with a brick or stone against its upper end, to ex¬ 
clude earth. We have heretofore used sole-tiles, with flat 
bottoms, and have found that a thin chip of wood, not an 
eighth of an inch thick, and four by two inches in size, such 
as may be found at shoe shops in Hew England, assists 
very much in securing an even bearing for the tiles. It 
is placed so that the ends of two tiles rest on it, and serves 
to keep them in line till secured by the earth. A man 
walking backward in the ditch, takes the tiles from the 
bank, carefully adjusting them in line and so as to make 
good joints, and he can lay half a mile or more in a day, 
if the bottom is well graded. Another should follow on 
the bank, throwing in a shovel full of gravel or tan, if 
either is used, upon the joint. 

If turf is to be used to secure the joint, pieces should be 
cut thin and narrow, and laid along the bank, and the 
man in the ditch must secure each joint as he proceeds. 
It will be found to cost twice the labor, at least, to use 
turf, as it is to use gravel or tan, if they are at hand. 

If the soil be clay, we do not believe it is best to return 


256 


FAKM DKAINAGE. 


it directly upon the tiles, because it is liable to puddle and 
stop the joint, and then to crack and admit silt at the joint, 
while gravel is not thus affected. We prefer to place the 
top soil of clay land, next the pipes, rather than the clay 
in the condition in which it is usually found. 

As to small stones above the pipes, we should decid¬ 
edly object to them. They are unnecessary to the opera¬ 
tion of the drain, and they allow the water to come in, in 
currents, on to the top of the pipes, in heavy storms or 
showers, and so endanger their security. The practice of 
placing stones above the tiles is abandoned by all scien¬ 
tific drainers. 

We have, in England, seen straw placed over the joints 
of pipes, but it seems an inconvenient and insecure prac¬ 
tice. Long straw cannot be well placed in such narrow 
openings, and it is likely to sustain the earth enough, so 
that when thrown in, it will not settle equally around the 
pipes; whereas a shovelfull of gravel or other earth sifted 
in carefully, will at once fasten them in place. 

Having laid and partially covered the first or upper 
drain, proceed with the next in the same way, laying and 
securing the main or sub-main, at the same time, to each 
intersection, thus carrying the work from the highest point 
down towards the outlet. After sufficient earth has been 
thrown in to make the work safe against accidents by 
rain, or caving in of earth, the filling may be completed 
at leisure. Mr. Johnston, of Geneva, uses for this purpose 
a plow, having a double-tree nine and a half feet long, to 
enable a horse to go on each side of the ditch. 

We suggest that a side-hill plow might well enough be 
used with horses tandem , or with oxen and cart wheels 
and draughts. 

The filling, however, will be found a small matter, 
compared with the digging. In laying pipes in narrow 
trenches, a tool called a pipe-layer is sometimes used, a 


PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 


257 


cut of which, showing its mode of use, may he found in 
another place. 

In filling drains where the soil is partly clay, and partly 
sand or gravel, we recommend that the clay he placed in 
the upper part of the drain, so as to prevent water from 
passing directly down upon the pipes, by which they are 
frequently displaced as soon as laid. 

If the work is completed in Autumn, it is well to turn 
two or three furrows from each side on to the drains, so 
as to raise the surface there, and prevent water from 
cutting out the ditch, or standing above it. If the land 
is plowed in Autumn, it is best to back-furrow on to the 
drains, leaving dead furrows half way between them, the 
first season. 

As to the importance of securing the outlets, and the 
manner of doing it, we have spoken particularly else¬ 
where. 

And here, again, we will remind the beginner, of the 
necessity of making and preserving accurate plans of the 
work, so that every drain may be at any time found by 
measurement. After a single rotation, it is frequently 
utterly impossible to perceive upon the surface any indica¬ 
tion of the line of the drains. 

In this connection, it may be well perhaps to remind 
the reader, that whatever arrangements are made as to 
silt-basins, or peep-holes, must be included in the general 
plan, and executed as the work proceeds. 


258 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER XIII. 

EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE UPON THE CONDITION OF THE SOIL. 

Drainage deepens the Soil, and gives the roots a larger pasture.—Cobbett’s 
Lucerne 80 feet deep.—Mechi’s Parsnips 13 feet long!—Drainage pro¬ 
motes Pulverization.—Prevents Surface-Washing.—Lengthens the Season. 
—Prevents Fi'eezing out.—Dispenses with Open Ditches.—Saves 25 per 
cent, of Labor.—Promotes absorption of Fertilizing Substances from the 
Air.—Supplies Air to the Roots.—Drains run before Rain; so do some 
Springs.—Drainage warms the Soil.—Corn sprouts at 55° ; Rye on Ice.— 
Cold from Evaporation.—Heat will not pass downward in Water.—Count 
Rumford’s Experiments with Hot Water on Ice.—Aeration of Soil by 
Drains. 

The benefits which high-lands, as we ordinarily call 
them, in distinction from swamp or flowed lands, derive 
from drainage, may be arranged in two classes, mechan¬ 
ical and chemical; though it is not easy, nor, indeed, is 
it important, to maintain this distinction in all points. 
Among those which partake rather of the nature of 
mechanical changes, are the following: 

Drainage deepens the soil. Every one who has at¬ 
tempted to raise deep-rooted vegetables upon half-drained 
swamp-land, has observed the utter impossibility of induc¬ 
ing them to extend downward their usual length. Pars¬ 
nips and carrots, on such land, frequently grow large at 
the top, but divide into numerous small fibres just below T 
the surface, and spread in all directions. Ho root, except 
those of aquatic plants, w T ill grow in stagnant water. If, 
therefore, it is of any advantage to have a deep, rather 
than a shallow soil, it is manifestly necessary, from this 
consideration alone, to lower the line of standing water, 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


259 


at least, to the extent to which the roots of our cultivated 
crops descend. A deep soil is better than a shallow one, 
because it furnishes a more extensive feeding-ground for 
the roots. The elements of nutrition, which the plant 
finds in the soil, are not all upon the surface. Many of 
them are washed down by the rains into the subsoil, and 
some are found in the decomposing rocks themselves. 
These, the plants, by a sort of instinct, search out and 
find, as w T ell in the depths of the earth as at its surface, 
if no obstacle opposes. By striking deep roots again, the 
plants stand more firmly in the earth, so that they are 
not so readily drawn out, or shaken by the winds. In¬ 
deed, every one knows that a soil two feet deep is better 
than one a foot deep ; and market-gardeners and nursery¬ 
men show, by their practice, that they know, if others do 
not, that a trenched soil three feet deep is better than one 
of any less depth. We all know that Indian corn, in a 
dry soil, sends down its rootlets two feet or more, as well 
as most of the grasses. Cobbett says : “ The lucerne will 
send its roots thirty feet into a dry bottom !” The Chi¬ 
nese yam, recently introduced, grows downward two or 
three feet. The digging of an acre of such a crop, by the 
way, on Hew England soil generally, would require a 
corps of sappers and miners, especially when we consider 
that the yam grows largest end downward. However, 
the yam may prove a valuable acquisition to the country. 
Every inch of additional soil gives 100 tons of active soil 
per acre. 

Says Mr. Denton: 

u I have evidence now before me, that the roots of the wheat 
plant, the mangold wurzel, the cabbage, and the white turnip, fre¬ 
quently descend into the soil to the depth of three feet. I have myself 
traced the roots of wheat nine feet deep. I have discovered the 
roots of perennial grasses in drains four feet deep • and I may refer to 
Mr. Mercer, of Newton, in Lancashire, who has traced the roots of rye 
grass running for many feet along a small pipe-drain, after descending 
four feet through the soil. Mr. Hetley, of Orton, assures me that he 


260 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


discovered the roots of the mangolds, in a recently made drain, five 
feet deep : and the late Sir John Conroy had many newly-made drains, 
four feet deep, stopped by the roots of the same plants.” 

Mr. Sheriff Mechi’s parsnips, however, distance any¬ 
thing in the way of deep rooting that has yet been re¬ 
corded. The Sheriff is a very dee}) drainer, and an en¬ 
thusiast in agriculture, and Nature seems to delight to 
humor his tastes, by performing a great many experiments 
at his famous place called Tiptree Hall. He stated, at a 
public meeting, that, in his neighborhood, where a crop 
of parsnips was growing on the edge of a clay pit, the 
roots were observed to descend 13 feet 6 inches; in fact, 
the whole depth to which this pit had once been tilled up ! 

j Drainage assists pulverization. It was Tull’s theory 
that, by the comminution, or minute division, of soils 
alone, without the application of any manures, their fer¬ 
tility might be permanently maintained; and he so far 
supported this theory as, by repeated plowings, to pro¬ 
duce twelve successive crops of wheat on the same land, 
without manure. The theory has received support from 
the known fact, that most soils are benefitted by Summer 
fallowing. The experiments instituted for the purpose of 
establishing this theory, although they disproved it, 
showed the great value of thorough pulverization. It is 
manifest that a wet soil can never be pulverized. Plowing 
clayey, or even loamy soil, when wet, tends rather to press 
it together, and render it less pervious to air and water. 

The first effect of under-draining is to dry the surface- 
soil, to draw out all the water that will run out of it, so 
that, in early Spring, or in Autumn, it may be worked 
with the plow as advantageously as undrained lands in 
mid-Summer. 

Striking illustrations of the benefits of thorough pul¬ 
verization will be found in the excellent remarks of Dr. 
Madden, given in a subsequent chapter. 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


261 


Drainage prevents surface-washing . All land which is 
not level, and is not in grass, is liable to great loss by 
heavy rains in Spring and Autumn. If the land is already 
tilled with water, or has not sufficient drainage, the rain 
cannot pass directly downward, but runs away upon the 
surface, carrying with it much of the soil, and washing 
out what remains of the valuable elements of fertility 
which have been applied with such expense. If the land 
be properly drained, the water falling from the clouds is 
at once absorbed, and passes downwards, saturating the 
soil in its descent, and carrying the soluble substances 
with it to the roots, and the surplus water runs away in 
the artificial channels provided by the draining process. 
So great is the absorbent power of drained land, that, 
after a protracted drought, all the water of a heavy rain¬ 
storm will be drunk up and held by the soil, so that, for a 
day or two, none will find its way to the drains, nor will 
it run upon the surface. 

Drainage lengthens the season for labor and vegetation. 
In the colder, latitudes of our country, where a long Win¬ 
ter is succeeded by a torrid Summer, with very little cere¬ 
mony by way of an intervening Spring, farmers have need 
of all their energy to get their seed seasonably into the 
ground. Snow often covers the fields in New England 
into April; and the ground is so saturated with water, that 
the land designed for corn and potatoes, frequently can¬ 
not be plowed till late in May. The manure is to be 
hauled from the cellar or yard, over land lifted and soft¬ 
ened by frost, and all the processes of preparing and plant¬ 
ing, are necessarily hurried and imperfect. In the Annual 
Report of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture, of 
the State of Maine, for 1856, a good illustration of this 
idea is given : “Mr. B. F. Nourse, of Orrington, plowed 
and planted with corn a piece of his drained and subsoiled 
land, in a drizzling rain, after a storm of two days. The 


262 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


corn came up and grew well; yet this was a clayey loam, 
formerly as wet as the adjoining grass-field, upon which 
oxen and carts could not pass, on the day of this planting, 
without cutting through the turf and miring deeply. The 
nearest neighbor said, if he had planted that day, it must 
have been from a raft.” Probably two w r eeks would be 
gained in New England, in Spring, in which to prepare 
for planting, by thorough-drainage, again, which no one 
can appreciate but a New England man, who has been 
obliged often to plow his land when too wet, to cut it 
up and overwork his team, in hauling on his manure over 
soft ground, and finally to plant as late as the 6th of June, 
or leave his manure to waste, and lose the use of his field 
till another season ; and all because of a surplus of cold 
water. 

Mr. Yeomans, of New York, in a published statement 
of his experience in draining, says, that on his drained 
lands, “ the ground becomes almost as dry in two or three 
days after the frost comes out in Spring, or after a heavy 
rain, as it would do in as many weeks, before draining.” 
But the gain of time for labor is not all. We gain time 
also for vegetation, by thorough-drainage. Ten days, fre¬ 
quently, in New England, may be the security of our 
corn-crop against frost. In less than that time, a whole 
field passes from the milky stage, when a slight frost 
would ruin it, to the glazed stage, when it is safe from 
cold ; and twice ten days of warm season are added by 
this removal of surplus water. 

Drainage gwevents freezing out. Mr. John Johnston, of 
Seneca County, New York, in 1851, had already made 
sixteen miles of tile drains. He had been experimenting 
with tiles from 1835, and had, on four acres of his drained 
clayey land, raised the largest crop of Indian corn ever 
produced in that county—eighty-three bushels of shelled 
corn to the acre. 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


263 


lie states, that on this clayey soil, when laid clown to grass, 
“ not one square foot of the clover froze out.” Again he 
says, “ Heretofore, many acres of wheat were lost on the 
upland by freezing out, and none would grow on the low¬ 
lands. How there is no loss from that cause.” 

The growing of Winter wheat has been entirely aban¬ 
doned in some localities on account of freezing out, or 
Winter-killing; and one of the worst obstacles in the way 
of getting our lands into grass, and keeping them so, is 
this very difficulty of freezing out. The operation seems 
to be merely this : The soil is pulverized only to the depth 
of the plow, some six or eight inches. Below this is a 
stratum of clay, nearly impervious to water. The Au¬ 
tumn rains saturate the surface soil, which absorbs water 
like a sponge. The ground is suddenly frozen ; the water 
contained in it crystallizes into ice; and the soil is thrown 
up into spicules, or honey-combs ; and the poor clover 
roots, or wheat plants, are drawn from their beds, and, by 
a few repetitions of the process, left dead on the field in 
Spring. Draining, followed by subsoiling, lets down the 
falling water at once through the soil, leaving the root bed 
of the plants so free from moisture, that the earth is not 
“ heaved,” as the term is, and the plants retain their na¬ 
tural position, and awaken refreshed in the Spring by their 
Winter’s repose. 

There are no open ditches on under-drained land. An 
open ditch in a tillage or mowing-field, is an abomi¬ 
nation. It compels us, in plowing, to stop, perhaps 
midway in our field ; to make short lands; to leave head¬ 
lands inconvenient to cultivate; and so to waste our time 
and strength in turning the team, and treading up the 
ground, instead of profitably employing it in drawing a 
long and handsome furrow the whole length of the field, 
as we might do were there no ditch. Open ditches, as 
usually made, obstruct the movement of our teams as 


264 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


much as fences, and a farm cut into squares by ditches, 
is nearly as objectionable as a farm fenced off into half 
or quarter-acre fields. 

In haying, we have the same inconvenience. We must 
turn the mowing-machine and liorse-rake at the ditch, 
and finish by handrlabor, the work on its banks; we must 
construct bridges at frequent intervals, and then go out 
of our way to cross them with loads,.cutting up the smooth 
fields with wheels and the feet of animals. Or, what is a 
familiar scene, when a shower is coming up, and the load 
is ready, Patrick concludes to drive straight to the barn, 
across the ditch, and gets his team mired, upsets his load, 
and perhaps breaks the leg of an animal, besides swearing 
more than half a mile of hard ditching will expiate. Such 
accidents are a great temptation to profanity, and under¬ 
draining might properly be reckoned a moral agent, to 
counteract such traps and pitfalls of the great adversary. 

A moment’s thought will satisfy any farmer who has 
the means, that true economy dictates a liberal expenditure 
of labor, at once, to obviate these difficulties, rather than 
be subject for a lifetime to the constant petty annoyances 
which have been named. 

Open ditches, even when formed so skillfully that they 
may be conveniently crossed, or water-furrows which 
remain where land is laid into ridges by back-furrowing, 
as much of our flat land must be, if not under-drained, 
are serious obstructions, at the best. 

They render the soil unequal in depth, taking it from 
one point where it is wanted, and heaping it upon another 
where it is not wanted, thus giving the crops an uneven 
growth. They render the soil also unequal in respect to 
moisture, because the back or top of the ridge must always 
be drier than the furrow. 

Thorough-drained land may be laid perfectly flat, giving 
us, thus, the control of the whole field, to divide and cul- 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


265 


tivate according to convenience, and making it of uniform 
texture and temperature. 

Attempts have been made, to estimate the saving in the 
number of horses and men by drainage, and it is thought 
to be a reasonable calculation to fix it at one in four, or 
twenty-five per cent. It probably will strike any farmer 
as a fair estimate, that, on land which needs drainage, it 
will require four horses and four men to perform the same 
amount of cultivation, that three men and three horses 
may perform on the same land well drained. 

Drained land will not require re-planting. There is 
hardly a farmer in New England, who does not, each 
Spring, find himself compelled to re-plant some portion 
of his crop. lie is obliged to hurry his seed into 
the ground, at the earliest day, because our season for 
planting is short at the best. If, after this, a long cold 
storm comes, on wet land, the seed rots in the ground, 
and he must plant again, often too late, incurring thus 
the loss of the seed, the labor of twice doing the same 
work, the interruption of his regular plan of business, and 
often the partial failure of his crop. 

Upon thorough-drained land, this cost and labor could 
rarely be experienced, because nothing short of a small 
deluge could saturate well drained land, so as to cause the 
seed to fail, if sowed or planted with ordinary care and 
prudence, as to the season. 

Drained land is lighter to work. It is often difficult to 
find a day in the year, when a wet piece of land is in 
suitable condition to plow. Usually, such tracts are 
unequal, some parts being much wetter than others, 
because the water settles into the low places. In such 
fields, we now drive our team knee deep into soft mud, 
and find a stream of water following us in the furrow, and 
now we rise upon a knoll, baked hard, and sun-cracked; 
and one half the surface when finished is shining with the 


266 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


plastered mud, ready to dry into the consistency of bricks, 
while the other is already in hard dry lumps, like paving 
stones, and about as easily pulverized. 

This is hard work for the team and men, hard in the 
plowing, and hard through the whole rotation. The same 
field, well drained, is friable and porous, and uniform in 
texture. It may be well plowed and readily pulverized, 
if taken in hand at any reasonable season. 

Land which has been puddled by the tread of cattle, 
or by wheels, acquires a peculiar consistency, and a 
singular capacity to hold water. Certain clays are wet 
and beaten up into this consistency, to form the bottoms 
of ponds, and to tighten dams and reservoirs. A soil thus 
puddled, requires careful treatment to again render it 
permeable to water, and fit for cultivation. This puddling 
process is constantly going on, under the feet of cattle, 
under the plow and the cart-wheels, wherever land 
containing clay is worked upon in a wet state. Thus, by 
performing a day’s work on wet land, we often render 
necessary as much additional labor as we perform, to 
cure the evil we have done. 

We may haul loads without injury on drained land . 
On many farms, it is difficult to select a season for hauling 
out manure, or carting stones from place to place, when 
great injury is not done to some part of the land by the 
operation. Many farmers haul out their manure in Winter, 
to avoid cutting up their farms ; admitting that the manure 
is wasted somewhat by the exposure, but, on the whole, 
choosing this loss as the lesser evil. In spreading manure 
in Spring, we are often obliged to carry half loads, because 
the land is soft, not only to spare our beasts, but also to 
spare our land the injury by treading it. Drained land 
is comparatively solid, especially in Spring, and will bear 
up heavy loads with little injury. 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


267 


Drained land is least injured by cattle in feeding. 
Whether it is good husbandry to feed our mowing fields 
at any time, is a question upon which farmers have a right 
to differ. Without discussing the question, it is enough 
for our purpose, that most farmers feed their fields late in 
the Autumn. Whether we approve it, or not, when the 
pastures are bare and burnt up, and the second crop in the 
home-field is so rich and tempting, and the women are 
complaining that the cows give no milk, we usually bow 
to the necessity of the time, and “ turn in ” the cows. 
The great injury of “ Fall-feeding ” is not usually so much 
the loss of the grass-covering from the field, as the poach¬ 
ing of the soil and destruction of the roots by treading. 
A hard upland field is much less injured by feeding, 
than a low meadow, and the latter less in a dry than a 
wet season. By drainage, the surplus water is taken from 
the field. None can stand upon its surface for a day after 
the rain ceases. The soil is compact, and the hoofs of cat¬ 
tle make little impression upon it, and the second or third 
crop may be fed olf, with comparatively little damage. 

Weeds are easily destroyed on drained land. If a 
weed be dug or pulled up from land that is wet and sticky, 
it is likely to strike root and grow again, because 
earth adheres to its roots ; whereas, a stroke of the hoe en¬ 
tirely separates the weeds in friable soil from the earth, 
and they die at once. Every farmer knows the different 
effect of hoeing, or of cultivating with the horse-hoe or 
harrow, in a rain storm and in dry weather. In one case, 
the weeds are rather repressed by the stirring, and, in the 
other, they are destroyed. -The difference between the 
surface of drained land and water-soaked land is much 
the same as that between land in dry weather under good 
cultivation, and land just saturated by rain. 

Again, there are many noxious weeds, such as wild 
grasses, which thrive only on wet land, and which are 


268 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


difficult to exterminate, and which give us no trouble after 
the land is lightened and sweetened by drainage. Among 
the effects of drainage, mainly of a chemical nature, on the 
soil, are the following : 

Drainage promotes absorption of fertilizing substances 
from the air. The atmosphere bears upon its bosom, not 
only the oxygen essential to the vitality of plants, not only 
water in the form of vapor, to quench their thirst in 
Summer droughts, but also various substances, which rise 
in exhalations from the sea, from decomposing animals and 
vegetables, from the breathing of all living creatures, 
from combustion, and a thousand other causes. These 
would be sufficient to corrupt the very air, and render it 
unfit for respiration, did not Nature, with her wondrous 
laws of compensation, provide for its purification. It has 
already been stated, how the atmosphere returns to the 
hills, in clouds and vapor, condensed at last to rain, all 
the water which the rivers carry to the sea; and how the 
well-drained soil derives moisture, in severest time of need, 
from its contact with the vapor-loaded air. But the rain 
and dew return not their waters to the earth without trea- 

* 

sures of fertility. Ammonia, which is one of the most 
valuable substances found in farm-yard manures, and 
which is a constant result of decomposition, is absorbed in 
almost incredible quantities by water. About 780 times 
its own bulk of ammonia is readily absorbed by water at 
the common temperature and pressure of the atmosphere ; 
and, freighted thus with treasures for the fields, the mois¬ 
ture of the atmosphere descends upon the earth. The 
rain cleanses the air of its impurities, and conveys them 
to the plants. The vapors of the marshes, and of the ex¬ 
posed manure heaps of the thriftless farmer, are gently 
wafted to the well-drained fields of his neighbor, and there, 
amidst the roots of the well-tilled crops, deposit, at the 
same time, their moisture and fertilizing wealth. 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


269 


* 


Of the wonderful power of the soil to absorb moisture, 
both from the heavens above and the earth beneath—by 
the deposition of dew, as well as by attraction—we shall 
treat more fully in another chapter. It will be found to 
be intimately connected with the present topic. 

Thorough drainage supplies air to the roots. Plants, if 
they do not breathe like animals, require for their life 
almost the same constant supply of air. “All plants,” 
says Liebig, “ die in soils and water destitute of oxygen ; 

absence of air acts exactlv in the same manner as an ex- 

«* 

cess of carbonic acid. Stagnant water on a marshy soil 
excludes air, but a renewal of water has the same effect 
as a renewal of air, because water contains it in solution. 
When the water is withdrawn from a marsh, free access is 
given to the air, and the marsh is changed into a fruitful 
meadow.” Animal and vegetable matter do not decay, 
or decompose, so as to furnish food for plants, unless freely 
supplied with oxygen, which they must obtain from 
air. A^ slight quantity of air, however, is sufficient for 
putrefaction, which is a powerful deoxydizing process that 
extracts oxygen even from the roots of plants. 

We are accustomed to think of the earth as a compact 
body of matter, vast and inert; subject, indeed, to be up- 
lieaved and rent by volcanoes and earthquakes, but as 
quite insensible' to slight influences which operate upon 
living beings and upon vegetation. This, however, is a 
great mistake ; and it may be interesting to refer to one or 
two facts, which illustrate the wonderful effect of changes 
of the atmosphere upon the soil, and upon the subterra¬ 
nean currents of the earth. The following is from remarks 
by Mr. Denton, in a public address: 

u But. as a proof of the sensibility of a soil drained four feet deep, to 
atmospheric changes, I may mention, that my attention has been, on 
more than one occasion, called to the circumstance that drains have 
been observed to run, after a discontinuance of that duty, without any 


270 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


* 

fall of rain on the surface of the drained land * and, upon reference to 
the barometer, it has been found that the quicksilver has fallen when¬ 
ever this has occurred. Mr. George Beaumont, jun., who first afforded 
tangible evidence of this extraordinary circumstance, has permitted me 
to read the following extracts of his letter : 

11 4 I can verify the case of the drains running without rain, during a 
falling barometer, beyond all doubt. 

11 4 The case I named to you last year of the barometer falling four 
days consecutively, and with rapidity, was a peculiarly favorable time 
for noticing it, as it occurred in a dry time, and the drains could be seen 
distinctly. My man, on being questioned and cautioned by me not to 
exaggerate, has declared the actual stream of water issuing from one 
particular drain to be as thick as a three-eighth-inch wire. All the 
drains ran—they did more than drop—and ditches, which were previ¬ 
ously dry, became quite wet, with a perceptible stream of water ; this 
gradually ceased with the change in the density of the atmosphere, as 
shown by the barometer. 

44 4 During last harvest, 1855, the men were cutting wheat, and on 
getting near to a drain outlet, the ditch from the outlet downwards 
was observed to be wet, and the drain was dripping. No rain fell in 
sufficient quantity to enter the ground. The men drank of the water 
while they were cutting the wheat. A few days after, it was dry again. 
I have seen and noticed this phenomenon myself 1 

44 A correspondent of the Agricultural Gazette has stated, that Pro¬ 
fessor Brocklesby, of Hartford, in America, had observed the same phen¬ 
omena, in the case of two springs in that country; and explained, that 
the cause was 4 the diminished atmospheric pressure which exists before 
a rain.’ ” 

Dr. Lardner states many facts which, support the ideas 
above suggested. In his lectures on science, he says: 
“ When storms are breaking in the heavens, and some¬ 
times long before their commencement, and when their 
approach has not yet been manifested by any appearances 
in the firmament, phenomena are observed, apparently 
sympathetic, proceeding from the deep recesses of the 
earth, and exhibited under very various forms at its sur¬ 
face.” Dr. Lardner cites many instances of fountains 
which, when a storm is approaching, burst forth with a 
violent flow of water, before any rain has fallen. 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


271 


The cases named by Prof. Brocklesby, referred to 
Mr. Denton, are those of a spring in Rutland, Yermont, 
and a brook in Concord, Massachusetts. Prof. Brocklesby 
states, as the result of his personal observation, that the 
spring referred to, supplies an aqueduct; that, in several 
instances, when the spring had become so low, in a time 
of drought, that no water ran in the aqueduct, it suddenly 
rose so as to fill the pipes, and furnish a supply of water, 
before any rain had fallen in the neighborhood. This oc¬ 
currence, he says, was familiar to the occupants of the 
premises, and they expected rain in a few days after this 
mysterious flow of water; which expectations were usually, 
if not always, realized. 

The other instance is that of a brook in Concord, Mass., 
called Dodge’s brook, which Prof. B. says, he was informed, 
commenced frequently to rise very perceptibly before a 
drop of rain had fallen. 

We have inquired of our friends in Concord about this 
matter, and find that this opinion is entertained by many 
of the people who live near this brook, and it is probably 
well founded, though we cannot ascertain that accurate 
observations have been made, so as to afford any defi¬ 
nite results. 

Thorough drainage warms the soil. It has been stated, 
on high authority, that drainage raises the temperature of 
the soil, often as much as 15° F. Indian corn vegetates at 
about 55°. At 45°, the seed would rot in the ground, 
without vegetating. The writer, however, has seen rye 
sprouted upon ice in an ice-house, with roots two inches 
long, so grown to the ice that they could only be separated 
by thawing. Winter rye, no doubt, makes considerable 
growth under snow. Cultivated jfiants, in general, how¬ 
ever, do not grow at all, unless the soil be raised above 
45°. The sun has great power to warm dry soils, and, it 
is said, will often raise their temperature to 90° or 100°, 


272 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


when the air in the shade is only 60° or 70°. But the sun 
has no such power to warm a wet soil, and for several 
reasons, which are as follows: 

1. The soil is rendered cold by evaporation. If water 
cannot pass through the land by drainage, either natural 
or artificial, it must escape, if at all, at the surface, by 
evaporation. Now, it is a fact well known, that the heat 
disappears, or becomes latent, by the conversion of water 
into vapor. Every child knows this, practically, at least, 
who, in Winter, has washed his hands and gone out with¬ 
out drying them. The same evaporation which thus 
affects the hands, renders the land cold, when filled with 
water, every gallon of which thus carried off requires, and 
actually carries off, as much heat as would raise five and 
a half gallons of water from the freezing to the boiling 
point. 

Morton, in his “ Encyclopaedia of Agriculture,” esti¬ 
mates that it would require an expenditure of nearly 1,200 
pounds of coal per day, to evaporate artificially one half 
the rain which falls on an acre during the year. In other 
words, about 219 tons of coals annually, would be required 
for every acre of undrained land, so as to allow the free 
use of the sun’s rays for the legitimate purpose of growing 
and maturing the crops cultivated upon it. It will not 
then be surprising that undrained soils are, in the lan¬ 
guage of the farmer, “cold.” 

2. Heat will not pass downward in water. If, there¬ 
fore, your soil be saturated with water, the heat of the 
sun, in Spring, cannot warm it, and your plowing and 
planting must be late, and your crop a failure. Count 
Rumford tried many experiments to illustrate the mode 
of the propagation of heat in fluids, and his conclusion, it 
is presumed, is now held to be the true theory, that heat 
is transmitted in water only by the motion of the particles 
of water; so that, if you could stop the heated particles 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


273 


from rising, water could not be warmed except wliere it 
touches the vessel containing it. Ileat applied to the bot¬ 
tom of a vessel of water warms the particles in contact 
with the vessel, and colder particles descend, and so the 
whole is warmed. 

Heat, applied to the surface of the water, can never 
warm it, except so far as it is conducted downward by 
some other medium than the water itself. Count Rum- 
ford confined cakes of ice in the bottom of glass jars, and, 
covering it with one thickness of paper, poured boiling- 
hot water on the top of it, and there it remained for 
hours without melting the ice. The paper was placed 
over the ice, so that the hot water could not be poured on 
it, which w T ould have thawed it at once. Every man who 
has poured hot water into a frozen pump, hoping to thaw 
out the ice by this means, lias arrived at the fact, if not at 
the theory, that ice will not melt by hot water on the top 
of it. If, however, a piece of lead pipe be placed in the 
pump, resting on the ice, and hot water be poured through 
it, the ice will melt at once. In the first instance, the hot 
water in contact with the ice becomes cold; and there it 
remains, because cold water is heavier than warm, and 
there it will remain, though the top be boiling. But 
when hot water is poured through the pipe, the dowmward 
current drives away the cold water, and brings heated 
particles in succession to the ice. 

Heat is propagated in water, then, only by circulation; 
that is, by the upward movement of the heated particles, 
and the downward movement of the colder ones to take 
their place. Anything which obstructs circulation, pre¬ 
vents the passage of heat. Chocolate retains heat longer 
than tea, because it is thicker, and the hot particles can¬ 
not so readily rise to be cooled at the surface. Count 
Eumford illustrated this fact satisfactorily, by putting 

eider-down into water, which was found to obstruct the 
12 * 


274 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


circulation, and to prevent the rapid heating and cooling 
of it. The same is true of all viscous substances, as starch 
and glue; and so of oil. They retain heat much longer 
than water or spirits. 

In a soil saturated with water, or even in water thick¬ 
ened with mud, there could then be but little circulation 
of the particles, even were the heat applied at the bottom 
instead of the top. Probably the soil, though saturated 
with water, does, to some extent, transmit heat from one 
particle of earth to another, but it must be but very slowly. 

In the chapter upon Temperature as affected by Drain¬ 
age, farther illustrations of this point may be found. 

AERATION BY DRAINS. 

Among the advantages of thorough-drainage, is reckoned 
by all, the circulation of air through the soil. Ho drop 
of water can run from the soil into a drain without its 
place being supplied by air, unless there is more water to 
supply it; so that drainage, in this way, manifestly pro¬ 
motes the permeation of air through the soil. 

But it is claimed that drains may be made to promote 
circulation of air in another way, and in dry times, when 
no water is flowing through them, by connecting them 
together by means of a header at the upper ends, and 
leaving an opening so that the air may pass freely through 
the whole system. Our friend, Prof. Mapes, is an advo¬ 
cate for this practice, and certainly the theory seems well 
supported. It is said that in dry, hot weather, when the 
air is most highly charged with moisture, currents thus 
passing constantly through the earth, must, by contact 
with the cooler subsoil, part with large quantities of 
moisture, and tend to moisten the soil from the drains to 
the surface, giving off also with the moisture whatever of 
fertilizing elements the air may bear with it. 

This point has not escaped the notice of English drain- 


EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON SOILS. 


275 


ers. Mr. J. H. Cliarnock, an assistant commissioner 
under the Drainage act, in 18-13, read a paper in favor of 
this practice, hut in 1849 he published a second article in 
which he suggests doubts of the advantages of such 
arrangements, and says he has discontinued their applica¬ 
tion. lie says they add to the cost of the work, and tend 
to the decay of the pipes, and to promote the growth into 
the pipes, of any roots that may approach them. 

Mr. Parkes, in a published article in 1846, speaks of this 
idea, but passes it by as of very little importance. Mr. 
Denton quotes the authority of some of his correspondents 
strongly in favor of this theory. After trying some 
experiments himself upon clay soil, he admits the advan¬ 
tages of such an arrangement for such soil, in the follow¬ 
ing not very enthusiastic terms: 

“ It will be readily understood that as clay will always 
contract rapidly under the influence of a draught of air, in 
consequence of the rapid evaporation of moisture from its 
surface, one of the benefits of draining is thus very cheaply 
acquired; and for the denser clays it may possibly be a 
desirable thing to do, but in the porous soils it would 
appear that no advantage is gained by it.” 

Yet, notwithstanding this summary disposition of the 
question in England, it is by no means clear, that in the 
tropical heat of American summers, when the difference 
between the temperature of the air and the subsoil is so 
much greater than it can ever be in England, and when 
we suffer from severer droughts than are common there, 
we may not find substantial practical advantage from the 
passage of these air currents through the soil. 

We-arc not aware of experiments in America, accurate 
enough to be quoted as authority on the subject. 


276 


FARM DRAINAGE. 



CHAPTER XIY. 

DRAINAGE ADAFTS THE SOIL TO GERMINATION AND 

VEGETATION. 

Process of Germination.—Two Classes of Pores in Soils, illustrated by 
Cuts.—Too much Water excludes Air, reduces Temperature.—How much 
Air the Soil Contains.—Drainage Improves the Quality of Crops.— 
Drainage prevents Drought.—Drained Soils hold most Water.—Allow 
Roots to go Deep.—Various Facts. 

Ho apology will be necessary for the long extract which 
we are about to give, to any person who will read it with 
attention. It is from a lecture on Agricultural Science, 
by Dr. Madden, and we confess ourselves- incompetent 
to condense or improve the language of the learned 
author. 

We think we are safe in saying that it has never been 
before published in America : 

“The first thing which occurs after the sowing of the seed is, of 
course, germination; and before we examine how this process maybe 
influenced by the condition of the soil, we must necessarily obtain some 
correct idea of the process itself. The most careful examination has 
proved that the process of germination consists essentially of various 
chemical changes, which require for their development the presence of 
air, moisture, and a certain degree of warmth. Now it is obviously 
unnecessary for our present purpose that we should have the least idea 
of the nature of these processes : all we require to do, is to ascertain 
the conditions under which they take place ; having detected these, we 
know at once what is required to make a seed grow. These, w r e have 
seen, are air, moisture, and a certain degree of warmth : and it con¬ 
sequently results, that wherever a seed is placed in these circumstances, 
germination will take place. Viewing matters in this light, it appears 


GERMINATION. 


277 


that soil does not act chemically in the process of germination; that its 
sole action is confined to its being the vehicle, by means of which a 
supply of air and moisture and warmth can be continually kept up. 
With this simple statement in view, we are quite prepared to consider 
the various conditions of soil, for the purpose of determining how far 
these will influence the future prospects of the crop, and we shall 
accordingly at once proceed to examine carefully into the mechanical 
relations of the soil. This we propose doing by the aid of figures. 
Soil examined mechanically, is found to consist entirely of particles of 
all shapes and sizes, from stones and pebbles, down to the finest powder ) 
and, on account of their extreme irregularity of shape, they cannot lie 
so close to one another as to prevent there being passages between 
them, owing to which circumstance soil in the mass is always more or 
less porous. If, however, we proceed to examine one of the smallest 
particles of which spil is made up, we shall find that even this is not 
always solid, but is much more frequently porous, like soil in the mass. 
A considerable proportion of this finely-divided part of soil, the impal¬ 
pable matter as it is generally called, is found, by the aid of the micros¬ 
cope, to consist of brolcen-down vegetable tissue, so that when a small 
portion of the finest dust from a garden or field is placed under the 
microscope, we have exhibited to us particles of every variety of shape 
and structure, of which a certain part is evidently of vegetable origin. 



In these figures I have given a very rude representation of these 
particles; and I must beg you particularly to remember that they are 
not meant to represent by any means accurately what the microscope 
exhibits, but are only designed to serve as a plan by which to illustrate 
the mechanical properties of the soil. On referring to Fig. 91, we per¬ 
ceive that there are two distinct classes of pores ; first., the large ones, 
which exist between the particles of soil, and second, the very minute 
ones, which occur in the particles themselves ; and you will at the 
same time notice, that whereas all the larger pores—those between the 










278 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


particles of soil—communicate most freely with each other, so that 
they form canals, the small pores, however freely they may commu¬ 
nicate with one another in the interior of the particle in which they 
occur, have no direct connection with the pores of the surrounding 
particles. Let us now, therefore, trace the effect of this arrangement. 
In Fig. 91, we perceive that these canals and pores are all empty, the 
soil being perfectly dry ; and the canals communicating freely at the 
surface with the surrounding atmosphere, the whole will of course be 
filled with air. If in this condition, a seed be placed in the soil, as at 
a, you at once perceive that it is freely supplied with air, but there is 
no moisture; therefore, when soil is perfectly dry , a seed cannot grow. 

“ Let us turn our attention now to Fig. 92. Here we perceive that 
both the pores and canals are no longer represented white, but black, 
this color being used to indicate water; in this instance, therefore, 
water has taken the place of air, or, in other words, the soil is very wet. 
If we observe our seed a now, we find it abundantly supplied with 
water, but no air. Here again, therefore, germination cannot take 
place. It may be well to state here, that this can never occur exactly 
in nature, because water having the power of dissolving air to a certain 
extent, the seed a in Fig. 92 is, in fact, supplied with a certain amount 
of this necessary substance ; and, owing to this, germination does take 
place, although by no means under such advantageous circumstances 
as it would were the soil in a better condition. 



Eig. 93. Fig. 94. 

“ We pass on now to Fig. 93. Here we find a different state of 
matters. The canals are open and freely supplied with air, while the 
pores arc filled with water; and consequently you perceive that, while 
the seed a has quite enough of air from the canals, it can never be 
without moisture, as every particle of soil which touches it, is well 
supplied with this necessary ingredient. This, then, is the proper con¬ 
dition of soil for germination, and in fact for every period of the plant’s 
development; and this condition occurs when soil is moist but not wet 















GERMINATION. 


279 


—that is to say, when it has the color and appearance of being well 
watered, but when it is still capable of being crumbled to pieces by 
the hands, without any of its particles adhering together in the familiar 
form of mud. 

u Turning our eyes to Fig. 94, we observe still another condition of 
soil. In this instance, as far as water is concerned, the soil is in its 
healthy condition—it is moist, but not wet, the pores alone being filled 
with water. But where are the canals? We see them in a few 
places, but in by far the greater part of the soil none are to be per¬ 
ceived ; this is owing to the particles of soil having adhered together, 
and thus so far obliterated the interstitial canals, that they appear only 
like pores. This is the state of matters in every clod of earth , b ; and 
you will at once perceive, on comparing it with c, which represents a 
stone, that these two differ only in possessing a few pores, which latter, 
while they may form a reservoir for moisture, can never act as vehicles 
for the food of plants, as the roots are not capable of extending their 
fibres into the interior of a clod, but are at all times confined to the 
interstitial canals. 

“ With these four conditions before us, let us endeavor to apply them 
'practically to ascertain when they occur in our fields, and how those 
which are injurious may be obviated. 

u The first of them, we perceive, is a state of too great dryness, a very 
rare condition, in this climate at least ; in fact, the only case in which 
it is likely to occur is in very coarse sands, where the soil, being chiefly 
made up of pure sand and particles of flinty matter, contains compara¬ 
tively much fewer pores; and, from the large size of the individual par¬ 
ticles, assisted by their irregularity, the canals are wider, the circula¬ 
tion of air freer, and, consequently, the whole is much more easily dried. 
When this state of matters exists, the best treatment is to leave all the 
stones which occur on the surface of the field, as they cast shades, and 
thereby prevent or retard the evaporation of water. 

ic We will not, however, make any further observations on this very 
rare case, but will rather proceed to Fig. 92, a much more frequent, and, 
in every respect, more important condition of soil : I refer to an excess 
of water. 

“ When water is added to perfectly dry soil, it, of course, in the first 
instance, fills the interstitial canals, and from these enters the pores ot 
each particle ; and if the supply of water be not too great, the canals 
speedily become empty, so that the whole of the fluid is taken up by 
the pores : this, we have already seen, is the healthy condition of the 
soil. If, however, the supply of water be too great, as is the case when 



280 


v 


FA KM DRAINAGE. 


a spring gains admission into the soil, or when the sinking of the fluid 
through the canals to a sufficient depth below the surface is prevented, 
it is clear that, these also must get filled with water so soon as the 
pores have become saturated. This, then, is the condition of undrained 
soil. 

u Not only are the pores filled, but the interstitial canals are likewise 
full; and the consequence is, that the whole process of the germination 
and growth of vegetables is materially interfered with. We shall here, 
therefore briefly state the injurious effects of an excess of water, for the 
purpose of impressing more strongly on your minds the necessity of 
thorough-draining, as the first and most essential step towards the im¬ 
provement of your soil?* 

“ Th e first great effect of an excess of water is, that it produces a cor¬ 
responding diminution of the amount of air beneath the surface, which 
air is of the greatest possible consequence in the nutrition of plants ; in 
fact, if entirely excluded, germination could not take place, and the seed 
sown would, of course, either decay or lie dormant. 

11 Secondly , an excess of water is most hurtful, by reducing consider¬ 
ably the temperature of the soil : this I find, by careful experiment, to 
be to the extent of six and a-half degrees Fahrenheit in Summer, which 
amount is equivalent to an elevation above the level of the sea of 1,950 
feet. 

<c These are the two chief injuries of an excess of water in soil which 
affect the soil itself. There are very many others affecting the climate, 
&c.; but these not so connected with the subject in hand as to call for 
an explanation here. 

“ Of course, all these injurious effects are at once overcome by 
thorough-draining, the result of which is, to establish a direct commun¬ 
ication between the interstitial canals and the drains, by which means it 
follows, that no water can remain any length of time in these canals 
without, by its gravitation, finding its way into the drains. 

11 The 4th Fig. indicates badlv-cultivated soil, or soil in which large 
unbroken clods exist : which clods, as we have already seen, are very 
little better than stones, on account of their impermeability to air and 
the roots of plants. 

“ Too much cannot be said in favor of pulverizing the soil ; even 
thorough-draining itself will not supersede the necessity of performing 
this most necessary operation. The whole valuable effects of plowing, 
harrowing, grubbing, &c., may be reduced to this : and almost the whole 
superiority of garden over field produce is referable to the greater per¬ 
fection to which this pulverizing of the soil can be carried. 


DRAINAGE PREVENTS DROUGHT. 281 

\ v 

i£ The whole success of the drill husbandry is owing, in a great mea¬ 
sure, to its enabling you to stir up the soil well during the progress of 
your crop ; which stirring up is of no value beyond its effects in more 
minutely pulverizing the soil, increasing, as far as possible, the size and 
number of the interstitial canals. 

“ Lest any one should suppose that the contents of these interstitial 
canals must be so minute that their whole amount can be of but little 
consequence, I may here notice the fact, that, in moderately well pul¬ 
verized soil, they amount to no less than one-fourth of the whole bulk 
of the soil itself; for example, 100 cubic inches of moist soil (that is, 
of soil in which the pores are filled with water while the canals are 
filled with air), contain no less than 25 cubic inches of air. According 
to this calculation, in a field pulverized to the depth of eight inches, a 
depth perfectly attainable on most soils by careful tillage, every impe¬ 
rial acre will retain beneath its surface no less than 12,545.280 cubic 
inches of air. And, to take one more element into the calculation, 
supposing the soil were not properly drained, the sufficient pulverizing 
of an additional inch in depth would increase the escape of water from 
the surface by upwards of one hundred gallons a day.” 

Drainage improves the quality of crops. In a dry sea¬ 
son, we frequently hear the farmer boast of the quality 
of his products. His hay-crop, he says, is light, but will 
“ spend” much better than the crop of a wet season ; his 
potatoes are not large, but they are sound and mealy. 
Indeed, this topic need not be enlarged upon. Every 
farmer knows that his wheat and corn are heavier and 
more sound when grown upon land sufficiently drained. 

Drainage prevents drought. This proposition is some¬ 
what startling at first view. How can draining land 
make it more moist ? One would as soon think of water¬ 
ing land to make it dry. A drought is the enemy we all 
dread. Professor Espy has a plan for producing rain, by 
lighting extensive artificial fires. A great objection to 
his theory is, that he cannot limit his showers to his own 
land, and all the public would never be ready for a show¬ 
er on the same day. If we can really protect our land 
from drought, by underdraining it, everybody may at once 
engage in the work without offence to his neighbor. 


282 


FARM DRAINAGE. 

3 % 


If we take lip a handfull of rich soil of almost any kind, 
after a heavy rain, we can squeeze it hard enough with 
the hand to press out drops of water. If we should take 
of the same soil a large quantity, after it was so dry that 
not a drop of water could be jiressed out by hand, and 
subject it to the pressure of machinery, we should force 
from it more water. Any boy, who has watched the pro¬ 
cess of making cider with the old-fashioned press, has 
seen the pomace, after it had been once pressed ajjpa- 
rently dry and cut down, and the screw applied anew to 
the “ cheese,” give out quantities of juice. These facts 
illustrate, first, how much water may be held in the soil 
by attraction. They show, again, that more water is held 
by a pulverized and open soil, than by a compact and 
close one. Water is held in the soil between the minute 
particles of earth. If these particles be pressed together 
compactly, there is no space left between them for water. 
The same is true of soil naturally compact. This com¬ 
pactness exists more or less in most subsoils, certainly in 
all through which water does not readily pass. Hence, 
all these subsoils are rendered more permeable to water 
by being broken up and divided; and more retentive by 
having the particles of which they are composed separat¬ 
ed, one from another—in a word, by pulverization. This 
increased capacity to contain moisture by attraction, is 
the greatest security against drought. The plants, in a dry 
time send their rootlets throughout the soil, and flourish in 
the moisture thus stored up for their time of need. The 
pulverization of drained land may be produced, partly by 
deep, or subsoil plowing, which is always necessary to 
perfect the object of thorough-draining; but it is much 
aided, in stiff clays, also, by the shrinkage of the soil by 
drying. 

Drainage resists drought, again, by the very deepening 
of the soil of which we have already spoken. The roots 


DRAINAGE PREVENTS DROUGHT. 


283 


of plants, we have seen, will not extend into stagnant 
water. If, then, as is frequently the case, even on sandy 
plains, the water-line he, in early Spring, very near the 
surface, the seed may be planted, may vegetate, and throw 
up a goodly show of leaves and stalks, which may flourish 
as long as the early rains continue; hut, suddenly, the 
rains cease; the sun comes out in his June brightness; the 
water-line lowers at once in the soil; the roots have no 
depth to draw moisture from below, and the whole field of 
clover, or of corn, in a single week, is past recovery. 
Now, if this light, sandy soil be drained, so that, at the 
first start of the croj), there is a deep seed-bed free from 
water, the roots strike downward, at once, and thus pre¬ 
pare for a drought. The writer has seen upon deep- 
trenched land in his own garden, parsnips, which, before 
midsummer, had extended downward three feet, before 
they were as large as a common whiplash; and yet, 
through the Summer drought, continued to thrive till they 
attained in Autumn a length, including tops, of about 
seven feet, and an extraordinary size. A moment’s reflec¬ 
tion will satisfy any one that, the dryer the soil in Spring, 
the deeper will the roots strike, and the better able will be 
the plant to endure the Summer’s drought. 

Again, drainage and consequent pulverization and deep¬ 
ening of the soils increase their capacity to absorb moisture 
from the atmosphere, and thus afford protection against 
drought. Watery vapor is constantly, in all dry weather, 
rising from the surface of the earth; and plants, in the 
day-time, are also, from their leaves and bark, giving off 
moisture which they draw from the soil. But Nature has 
provided a wonderful law of compensation for this waste, 
which would, without such provision, parch the earth to 
barrenness in a single rainless month. 

The capacity of the atmosphere to take up and convey 
water, furnishes one of the grandest illustrations of the 


284 FARM DRAINAGE. 

perfect work of the Author of the Universe. “All the 
rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not fulland the 
sea is not full, because the numerous great rivers and 
their millions of tributaries, ever flowing from age to age, 
convey to the ocean only as much water as the atmos¬ 
phere carries back in vapor, and discharges upon the 
hills. The warmer the atmosphere, the greater its capa¬ 
city to hold moisture. The heated, thirsty air of the 
tropics drinks up the "water of the ocean, and bears it 
away to the colder regions, where, through condensation 
by cold, it becomes visible as a cloud; and as a huge 
sponge pressed by an invisible hand, the cloud, condensed 
still further by cold, sends down its water to the earth 
in rain. 

The heated air over our fields and streams, in Summer, 
is loaded with moisture as the sun declines. The earth 
has been cooled by radiation of its heat, and by constant 
evaporation through the day. By contact with the cooler 
soil, the air, borne by its thousand currents gently along 
its surface, is condensed, and yields its moisture to the 
thirsty earth again, in the form of dew. 

At a Legislative Agricultural Meeting, held in Albany, 
Hew York, January 25th, 1855, “ the great drought of 
1854” being the subject, the secretary stated that “the 
experience of the past season has abundantly proved that 
thorough-drainage upon soils requiring it, has proved a 
very great relief to the farmerthat “ the crops upon 
such lands have been far better, generally, than those 
upon undrained lands, in the same locality and that, 
“ in many instances, the increased crop has been sufficient 
to defray the expenses of the improvement in a single 
year.” 

Mr. Joseph Harris, at the same meeting, said: “An 
underdrained soil will be found damper in dry weather, than 
an undrained one, and the thermometer shows a drained 


DRAINAGE PREVENTS DROUGHT. 


285 


soil warmer in cold weatlier, and cooler in hot weather, 
than one which is undrained.” 

The secretary of the New York State Agricultural 
Society, in his Report for 1855, says : “The testimony of 
farmers, in different sections of the State, is almost unani¬ 
mous, that drained lands have suffered far less from 
drought than undrained.” Alleghany county reports that 
“ drained lands have been less affected by the drought 
than undrained;” Chatauque county, that “the drained 
lands have stood the drought better than the undrained.” 
The report from Clinton county says : “ Drained lands 
have been less affected by the drought than undrained.” 
Montgomery county reports: “We tind that drained 
lands have a better crop in either wet or dry seasons than 
undrained.” 

B. F. Nourse, of Orrington, Maine, states that, on his 
drained land, in that State, “during the drought of 1854, 
there was at all times sufficient dampness apparent on 
scraping the surface of the ground with his foot in pass¬ 
ing, and a crop of beans was planted, grown and gathered 
therefrom, without as much rain as will usually fall in a 
shower of fifteen minutes’ duration, while vegetation on 
the next field was parching for lack of moisture. 

A committee of the New York Farmers’ Club, which 
visited the farm of Prof. Mapes, in New Jersey, in the 
time of a severe drought, in 1855, reported that the Pro¬ 
fessor’s fences were the boundaries of the drought, all the 
lands outside being affected by it, while his remained free 
from injury. This was attributed, both by the committee 
and by Prof. Mapes himself, to thorough-drainage and 
deep tillage with the subsoil plow. 

Mr. Shedd, in the JST. E. Farmer , says : 

u A- simple illustration will show the effect which stagnant water, 
within a foot or two of the surface, has on the roots of plants. 


286 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


lc Perhaps it will aid the reader, who doubts the benefit of thorough- 
draining in case of drought, to see why it is beneficial. 

Fig. 95. Fig. 96. 



1 .. J 

Section of land before Section of land after 

it is drained. it is drained. 


“ In the first figure. 1 represents the surface soil, through which 
evaporation takes place, using up the heat which might otherwise go 
to the roots of plants ; 2, represents the water table, or surface of stag¬ 
nant water below which roots seldom go; 3, water of evaporation; 4, 
water of capillary attraction ; 5, water of drainage, or stagnant 
water. 

“ In the second figure, 1 represents the surface-soil warmed by the 
sun and Summer rains ; 2, the water-table nearly four feet below the 
surface—roots of the wheat plant have been traced to a depth of more 
than four feet in a free mold ; 3, water of capillary attraction ; 4, water 
of drainage, or stagnant water.” 








































































TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


287 


CHAPTEE XY. 

TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 

Drainage Warms the Soil in Spring.—Heat cannot go down in Wet Land.— 
Drainage causes greater Deposit of Dew in Summer.—Dew warms Plants 
in Night, Cools them in the Morning Sun.—Drainage varies Temperature 
by Lessening Evaporation.—What is Evaporation.—How it produces Cold. 
—Drained Land Freezes Deepest, but Thaws Soonest, and the Reasons. 

Drainage raises the temperature of the soil , Ijy allowing 
the rain to pass doivmoards. In tlie growing season, espe¬ 
cially in the Spring, the rain is considerably warmer than 
the soil. If the soil be saturated with the cold snow-water, 
the water which falls must, of course, run away upon the 
surface. If the soil be drained, the rain-water finds ready 
admission into it, carrying and imparting to it a portion 
of its heat. The experiments of Count Eumford, show¬ 
ing that heat is not propagated downward in fluids, may 
be found at page 273. This is a principle too important 
to be overlooked, especially in New England, where we 
need every aid from Nature and Art, to contend success¬ 
fully against the brevity of the planting season. Soil sat¬ 
urated with cold water, cannot be w T armed by any amount 
of heat applied to the surface. Warm water is lighter 
than cold water, and stays at the surface. In boiling 
water in a kettle, we apply fire at the bottom, and no 
amount of heat at the surface of the vessel would produce 
the desired effect. So rapid is the passage of heat upward 
in water, that the hand may without injury be held upon 
the bottom of a kettle of boiling water one minute after it 
lias been removed from the fire. 


288 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


The following experiments and illustrations, from the 
Horticulturist of Nov. 1856, beautifully illustrate this 
point: 

“ RATIONALE OF DRAINING LAND EXPLAINED. 


u The reason why drained land gains heat, and waier-logged land is 
always cold, consists in the well-known fact that heat cannot be trans¬ 
mitted downivards through water. This may readily be seen by the 
following experiments : 

11 Experiment No. 1.—A square box was made, of the form repre¬ 
sented by the annexed diagram, eight¬ 
een inches deep, eleven inches wide 
at top, and six inches wide at bottom. 
It was filled with peat, saturated 
with water to c, forming to that 
depth (twelve and a half inches) a 
sort of artificial bog. The box was 
then filled with water to d. A ther¬ 
mometer a, was plunged, so that its 
bulb was within one inch and a half 
of the bottom. The temperature of 
the whole mass of peat and water 
was found to be 39i° Fahr. A gal¬ 
lon of boiling water was then added ; 
it raised the surface of the water to 
e. In five minutes, the thermometer, 
a, rose to 44°, owing to the conduc¬ 
tion of heat by the thermometer and 
its guard tube ; at ten minutes from the introduction of the hot water, 
the thermometer, a, rose to 46°, and it subsequently rose no higher. 
Another thermometer, 5, dipping under the surface of the water at e, 
was then introduced, and the following are the indications of the two 
thermometers at the respective intervals, reckoning from the time the 
hot water was supplied : 

Thermometer b. Thermometer a. 



20 minutes 

1 hour 30 11 

2 hours 30 u 

12 “ 40 “ 


150° 

46' 

101° 

45 

o 

O 

OO 

42 

45° 

40 


“ The mean temperature of the external air to which the box was ex- 

























TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


289 


posed during the above period, was 42°, the maximum being 47°, and 
the minimum 37°. 

l: Experiment No. 2.—With the same arrangement as in the preceding 
case, a gallon of boiling water was introduced above the peat and 
water, when the thermometer a, was at 36°; in ten minutes it rose to 
40°. The cock was then turned for the purpose of drainage, which 
was but slowly effected; and, at the end of twenty minutes, the ther¬ 
mometer a, indicated 40°; at twenty-five minutes, 42°, whilst the 
thermometer b , was 142°. At thirty minutes, the cock was withdrawn 
from the box, and more free egress of water being thus afforded, 
at thirty-five minutes the flow was no longer continuous, and the ther¬ 
mometer 6, indicated 48°. The mass was drained, and permeable to a 
fresh supply of water. Accordingly, another gallon of boiling water 
was poured over it; and, in 


3 minutes, the thermometer a. rose to.. 77°. 

5 “ “ fell to. 7 6i°. 

15 “ “ “ . 70*°. 

20 11 u remained at... 71°. 

1 hour 50 “ “ “ u _ 70£°. 


“ In these two experiments, the thermometer at the bottom of the box 
suddenly rose a few degrees immediately after the hot water was 
added; and it might be inferred that the heat was carried downwards 
by the water. But, in reality,, the rise was owing to the action of the 
hot water on the thermometer, and not to its action upon the cold 
water. To prove this, the perpendicular thermometers were removed. 
The box was filled with peat and water to within three inches of the 
top, a horizontal thermometer, a /, having been previously secured 
through a hole made in the side of the box, by means of a tight-fitting 
cork, in which the naked stem of the thermometer was grooved. A 
gallon of boiling water was then added. The thermometer, a very 
delicate one, was not in the least affected by the boiling water in the top 
of the box. 

11 In this experiment, the wooden box may be supposed to be a field; 
the peat and cold water represent the water-logged portion; rain falls 
on the surface, and becomes warmed by contact with the soil, and, thus 
heated, descends. But it is stopped by the cold water, and the heat 
will go no further. But, if the soil is drained, and not water-logged, 
the warm rain trickles through the crevices of the earth, carrying to 
the drain-level the high temperature it had gained on the surface, parts 
13 





290 FARM DRAINAGE. 

with it to the soil as it passes down, and thus produces that bottom heat 
which is so essential to plants, although so few suspect its existence.” 

Water, although it will not conduct lieat downwards, is a 

readv vehicle of cold from the surface towards the bottom. 
«/ 

Water becomes heavier by cooling till it is reduced to about 
39°, at which point it attains its greatest density, and has 
a tendency to go to the bottom until the whole mass is 
reduced to this low temperature. Thus, the circulation 
of water in the saturated soil, in some conditions of the 
temperature of the surface and subsoil, may have a chil¬ 
ling effect which could not be produced on drained soil. 

After water is reduced to about 39°, instead of obeying 
the common law of becoming heavier by cooling, it forms 
a remarkable exception to it, and becomes lighter until it 
freezes. Were it not for this admirable provision of 
Nature, all our ponds and rivers would, in the Winter, 
become solid ice from the surface to the bottom. Now 
as the surface water is chilled it goes to the bottom, and 
is replaced by warmer water, which rises, until the whole 
is reduced to the point of greatest density. Then the 
circulation ceases, and the water colder than 39° remains 
at the surface, is converted into ice which becomes still 
lighter, by crystallization, and floats upon the surface. 

No experiments, showing the temperature of undrained 
soils at various depths, in the United States, have come 
to our knowlege. Mr. Gisborne says : “ Many experi¬ 
ments have shown that, in retentive soils, the temperature, 
at two or three feet below the surface of the water-table, 
is, at no period of the year, higher than from 46° to 48° in 
agricultural Britain.” Prof. Henry states in the Patent 
Office Report for 1857, that in the cellars of the observa¬ 
tory, at Paris, at the depth of sixty-seven and a half feet, 
in fifty years, the temperature has never varied a tenth of 
a degree from 53° 28', in all that period, Summer oi 
Winter. 


TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


291 


Mr. Parkes gives the results of a valuable series of 
experiments, in which he compared the temperature of 
drained and undrained portions of a bog. He found the 
temperature of the undrained portion to remain steadily 
at 46°, at all depths, from one to thirty feet; and at seven 
inches from the surface, the temperature remained at 47° 
during the experiments. During the same period, the 
temperature of the drained portion was 48^° at two feet 
seven inches below the surface, and at seven inches, 
reached as high as 66° during a thunder-storm ; while, on 
a mean of thirty-live observations, the temperature at the 
the latter depth was 10° higher than at the same depth in 
the undrained portion of the bog. 

We find in the “ Agriculture of Hew York,” the results 
of observations made at Albany and at Scott, in that 
State, in the year 1848, upon temperature at different 
depths. The condition of the soil is not described, but it 
is presumed that it was soil naturally drained in both 
cases. A few of the results may give the reader some 
idea of the range of underground temperature, as com¬ 
pared wfith that of the air. 


Temperature at Albany at two feet depth. 


u 

u 

ii 

highest August 17 and 18,. 

70° 

tt 

tt 

ti 

lowest February 28,. 

32f° 

tl 

it 

u 

Range,. 

371° 

tt 

it 

u 

at four feet depth. 


tt 

it 

u 

highest July 29,. 

64f 

tt 

it 

a 

lowest February 25,. 

35f 

tt 

u 

tt 

Range,. 

29° 

tl 

a 

u 

of the air, February 12,. 

— 3° 

It 

tt 

u 

11 le August, 3, P. M.,_ 

90° 

tl 

a 

i: 

Range,. 

93° 

Temperature at Scott 

at two feet depth. 


it 

u 

it 

highest, August 17 and 18. 

64® 

tt 

it 

u 

at four ft. depth, 17 days in Aug. 

60® 

it 

ll 

ti 

of the air, at 3, P.M., highest... 

90® 
















292 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


The temperature of falling rain, however, in the hot 
season, is many degrees cooler than the lower stratum of 
the atmosphere, and the surface of the earth upon which 
it falls. The effects of rain on drained soil, in the heat of 
Summer, are, then, twofold; to cool the burning surface, 
which is, as we have seen, much warmer than the rain, 
and, at the same time, to warm the subsoil which is cooler 
than the rain itself, as it falls, and very much cooler than 
the rain-water, as it is warmed by its passage through the 
hot surface soil. These are beautiful provisions of Nature, 
by which the excesses of heat and cold are mitigated, and 
the temperature of the soil rendered more uniform, upon 
land adapted, by drainage, to her genial influences. 

Upon the saturated and water-logged bog, as we have 
seen, the effect of the greatest heat is insufficient to raise 
the temperature of the subsoil a single degree, while the 
surface may be burned up and “ shrivelled like a parched 
scroll.” 

Drainage also raises the temperature of the soil by the 
admission of warm air. This proposition is closely con¬ 
nected with that just discussed. When the air is warmer 
than the soil, as it always is in the Spring-time, the water 
from the melting snow, or from rain, upon drained land, 
passes downward, and runs off by its gravitation. As 
“ Nature abhors a vacuum,” the little spaces in the soil, 
from which the water passes, must be filled with air, and 
this air can only be supplied from the surface, and, being 
warmer than the ground, tends to raise its temperature. 
No such effect can be produced in land not drained, 
because no water runs out'of it, and there are, conse¬ 
quently, no such spaces opened for the warm air to enter. 

Drainage equalizes the temperature of the soil in Sum¬ 
mer by increasing the deposit of dew. Of this we shall 
speak further, in a future chapter. 


TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


293 


Drainage raises the temperature in Spring hg diminish¬ 
ing evaporation. Evaporation may be defined to be the 
conversion of liquid and solid bodies into elastic fluids, by 
the influence of caloric. 

By beating water over a fire, bubbles rise from the 
bottom of the vessel, adhere awhile to the sides of it, and 
then ascend to the surface, and burst and go off in visible 
vapor, or, in other words, by evaporation. Water is 
evaporated by the heat of the sun merely, and even with¬ 
out this heat, in the open air. It is evaporated at very 
low temperatures, when fully exposed to the air. Even 
ice evaporates in the open air. We often observe in 
Winter, that a thin covering of ice or snow disappears 
from our roads, although there has been no thawing 
weather. 

In another chapter, we have considered the subject of 
“Evaporation and Filtration,” and endeavored to give some 
general idea of the proportion of the rain which escapes 
by evaporation. We have seen, that evaporation proceeds 
much more rapidly from a surface of water, as a pond or 
river, than from a land surface, unless it be fully saturated, 
and that evaporation from the water exceeds the whole 
amount of rain, about as much as evaporation from the 
land falls short of the amount of rain. Thus, by this 
simple agency of evaporation, the vast quantities of water 
that are constantly flowing, in all the rivers of the earth, 
into the sea, are brought back again to the land, and so 
the great system of circulation is maintained throughout 
the ages. 

As evaporation is greatest from a water-surface, so it is 
greater, other things being equal, according to the wetness 
of the surface of any given field. If the field be covered 
with water, it becomes a water-surface for the time, and 
the evaporation is like that from a pond. If, as is often 
the case, the water stands on it in spots, over half its 


294 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


surface, and tlie rest is saturated, the evaporation is 
scarcely less, and has been said to be even more; while, 
if the surface be comparatively dry, the evaporation is 
very little. 

But what harm does evaporation do ? and what has all 
this scientific talk to do with drainage \ These, my friend, 
are very practical questions, and just the ones which it is 
proposed to answer; hut w r e must bear in mind that, as 
Nature conducts her grand affairs by systematic laws, the 
small portion of her domain which for a brief space of 
time we occupy, is not exempted from their operation. 
Some of these laws we may comprehend, and turn our 
knowledge of them to practical account. Of others, w T e 
may note the results, without apprehending the reasons 
of them ; for it is true— 

“ There are more things in Heaven and earth, Horatio, 

Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.” 

Discussions of this kind may seem dry, though the sub¬ 
ject itself be moisture. They belong, certainly, to the 
topic under consideration. 

Evaporation does harm in the Spring-time, because it 
produces cold, just when v T e most v r ant heat. How it 
produces cold, is not so readily explained. The fact may 
be made as evident as the existence of sin in the world, 
and, possibly, the reason of it may be as unsatisfactory. 

The books say, that heat always disappears when a solid 
body becomes a liquid; and so it is, that the air always 
remains cool while the snow and ice are melting in Spring- 
Again, it is said that heat always disappears, when a fluid 
becomes vapor. These are said to be laws or principles 
of nature, and are said to explain other phenomena. To 
a practical mind, it is perhaps just as satisfactory to say 
that evaporation produces cold, as to state the principle 
or law in the language of science. 

That the fact is so, may be proved by many illustra- 


TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


295 


tions. Stockhardt gives the following experiment, which 
is strikingly appropriate: 

Fill a tube half full of water, and fasten securely round the bulb 
of it, a piece of cloth. Saturate the cloth with cold water, and then 
twirl the tube rapidly between the hands ; presently the water in the 
tube will become sensibly colder, and the degree of cold may be accu¬ 
rately determined by the thermometer. Moisten the cloth with ether, 
a very volatile liquid, and twirl it again in the same manner as before; 
by which means, its contents, even in Summer, may be converted into 
ice.” 

It is very fortunate for us, that our Spring showers 
are not of ether; for then, instead of thawing, our land 
w T ould freeze the harder! The heat of the blood is 
about 98°; yet man can endure a heat of many degrees 
more, and even labor under a Summer sun, which would 
raise the thermometer to 130°, without the temperature 
of his blood being materially affected, and it is because 
of perspiration, which absorbs the surplus heat, or, in other 
words, creates cold. It is said, too, that on the same 
principle, if two saucers, one filled with water warm 
enough to give off visible vapor, the other filled with 
water just from the well, are exposed in a sharp frosty 
morning, that filled with the warm water will exhibit ice 
soonest. Wine is cooled by evaporation, by wrapping 
the bottle in wet flannel, and exposing it to the air. 

If, after all this, any one doubts the fact that evapora¬ 
tion tends to produce cold, let him countenance his skep¬ 
ticism, by wetting his face with warm water, and going 
into the air in a Winter’s day, and his faith will be greatly 
strengthened. 

We have, in the northern part of America, most water 
in the soil in the Spring of the year, just at the time 
when we most need a genial w T armth to promote germina¬ 
tion. If land is well drained, this water sinks downward, 
and runs away in the drains, instead of passing upward by 
evaporation. 


296 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Drainage, therefore, diminishes evaporation simply by 
removing the surplus snow and rain-water by filtration. 
It thus raises the temperature of the soil in that part of 
the season, when water is flowing from the drains ; but, in 
the heat of Summer, the influence of the showers which 
refresh without saturating the soil, and are retained in it 
by attraction, is not lessened. As a good soil retains by 
attraction about one-half its weight of water that cannot 
be drained out, there can be no reasonable apprehension 
that the “ gentle Summer showers ” will be wasted by fil¬ 
tration, even upon thorough-drained land, while an avenue 
is open, by the drains, for the escape of drowning floods. 

To show the general effect of drainage, in raising the 
temperature of wet lands in Summer, the following state¬ 
ment of Mr. Parkes is valuable. An elevation of the tem¬ 
perature of the subsoil ten degrees, will be seen to be 
very material, when we consider that Indian corn will not 
vegetate at all at 53°, but will start at once at 63°, 55° 
being its lowest point of germination : 

“ As regards the temperature of the water derived from drainage at 
different seasons of the year, I am unacquainted with any published 
facts. This is a subject of the highest import, as thermometric obser¬ 
vations may be rendered demonstrative, in the truest manner, of the 
effect of drainage on the climate of the soil. At present, I must limit 
myself to saying, that I have never known the water of drainage issue 
from land drained at Midsummer, to depths of four and five feet, at a 
higher temperature than 52° or 53° Fahrenheit; whereas, in the follow¬ 
ing year and subsequent years, the water discharged from the same 
drains, at the same period, will issue at a temperature of 60°, and even 
so high as 63°, thus exhibiting the increase of heat conferred during 
the Summer months on the terrestrial climate by drainage. This is the 
all-important fact connected with the art and science of land-drainage.” 

Besides affecting favorably the temperature of the par¬ 
ticular field which is drained, the general effect of the 
drainage of wet lands upon the climate of the neighbor¬ 
hood has often been noticed. In the paper already cited, 
emanating from the Board of Health, we find the follow- 


TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


297 


ing remarks, which are in accordance with all observation 
in districts where under-drainage has been generally prac¬ 
ticed : 

£i Every one must have remarked, on passing from a district with a 
retentive soil to one of an open porous nature—respectively charac¬ 
terized as cold and warm soils—that, often, whilst the air on the reten¬ 
tive soil is cold and raw, that on the drier soil is comparatively warm 
and genial. The same effect which is here caused naturally, may be 
produced artificially, by providing for the perfect escape of superfluous 
water by drainage, so as to leave less to cool down the air by evapora¬ 
tion. The reason of this difference is two-fold. In the first place, 
much heat is saved, as much, heat being required for the vaporization 
of water, as would elevate the temperature of more than three million 
times its bulk of air one degree. It follows, therefore, that for every inch in 
depth of water carried off by drains, which must otherwise evaporate, as 
much heat is saved per acre as would elevate eleven thousand million 
cubic feet of air One degree in temperature. But that is not all. Not only 
is the temperature of the air reduced, but its dew point is raised, by water 
being evaporated which might be drained off : consequently, the want of 
drainage renders the air both colder and more liable to the formation of 
dew and mists, and its dampness affects comfort even more than its tem¬ 
perature. It is easy, then, to understand how local climate is so much 
affected by surplus moisture, and so remarkably improved by drainage. 
A farmer being asked the effect on temperature of some new drainage 
works, replied, that all he knew was, that before the drainage he could 
never go out at night without a great coat, and that now he could, so 
that he considered it made the difference of a great coat to him.” 

Drainage increases the coldness of the subsoil in Winter, 
Whether this is a gain or loss to the agriculturist, is not 
for us to determine. The object of our labor is, to lay the 
whole subject fairly before the reader, and not to extol 
drainage as the grand panacea of bad husbandry. 

Although water will not conduct heat downwards, yet 
it doubtless prevents the deep freezing of the ground. It 
has already been seen, that the temperature of the earth, a 
few feet below the surface, is above the freezing point, at 
all times. The fact that the ground does not freeze, usu¬ 
ally, even in Hew England, where every Winter brings 
13* 


298 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


weather below Zero, more than four or live feet deep, in the 
most exposed situations, shows conclusively the compara¬ 
tively even temperature of the subsoil. The water which 
flows underground is of this subsoil temperature, and, in 
Winter, warms the ground through which it flows. In 
land thoroughly drained, this warm water cannot rise 
above the drains, and so cannot defend the soil from frost. 

Drained land will, undoubtedly, freeze deeper than un¬ 
drained land, and this is a fact to be impressed upon all 
who lay tiles in a cold climate. It is a strong argument 
for deep drainage. “ Drain deep,-or drain not,” is a con¬ 
venient paraphrase of a familiar quotation. How often 
do we hear it said, “ My meadow never freezes more than 
a foot deep ; there will never be any trouble from frost in 
that place, if the tiles are no more than two feet deep.” 
Be assured, brother farmer, that the frost will follow the 
water-table downward, and, unless the warm water move 
in sufficient quantity through your pipes to protect them 
in Winter, your work may be ruined by frost. So long 
as much water is flowing in pipes, especially if it be from 
deep springs, they will be safe from frost, even at a slight 
depth. 

Dr. Madden says, that it has been proved that one 
great source of health and vigor in vegetation, is the 
great difference which exists between the temperature of 
Summer and Winter, which, he says, in dry soils, often 
amounts to between 30° and 40°; while, in very wet soils, 
it seldom exceeds 10°. This idea may have value in a 
mild climate; but, probably, in Hew England, we get 
cold enough for our good, without artificial aids. In 
another view, drainage is known to be essential, even in 
Winter. 

Fruit trees are almost as surely destroyed by standing 
with their feet in cold water all Winter, as any of us 
“ unfeathered bipeds” would be ; while the solid freezing 


TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE. 


299 


of the earth around their roots does not harm them. 
Perhaps the same is true of most other vegetation. 

The deep freezing of the ground is often mentioned as 
a mode of pulverization—as a sort of natural subsoiling 
thrown in by a kind Providence, by way of compensation 
for some of the evils of a cold climate. Most of those, 
however, who have wielded the pick-axe in laying four- 
foot drains, in clay or hard-pan, will have doubts whether 
Jack Frost, though he can pull up our fence-posts, and 
throw out our Winter grain, has much softened the earth 
two feet below its surface. 

That the frost comes out of drained land earlier than 
undrained, in Spring, we are satisfied, both by personal 
observation, and by the statements of the few individuals 
who have practiced thorough-drainage in our cold cli¬ 
mate. 

B. F. bourse, Esq., whose valuable statement will be 
found in a later chapter, says, that, in 1858, the frost came 
out a week, at least,- earlier from his drained land, in 
Maine, than from contiguous undrained land; and that, 
usually, the drained land is in condition to be worked as 
soon as the frost is out, quite two weeks earlier than any 
other land in the vicinity. Our observations on our own 
land, fully corroborate the opinion of Mr. bourse. 

The reasons why the frost should come out of drained 
land soonest, are, that land that is dry does not freeze so 
solid as land that is wet, and so spaces are left for the 
permeation of warm air. Again, ice, like water, is almost 
a nonconductor of heat, and earth saturated with water 
and frozen, is like unto it, so that neither the warmth of 
the subsoil or surface-soil can be readily imparted to it. 
Dry earth, on the other hand, although frozen, is still a 
good conductor, and readily dissolves at the first warm 
breath of Spring above, or the pulsations of the great heart 
of Nature beneath. 


300 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER XVI 

POWER OF SOILS TO ABSORB AND RETAIN MOISTURE. 


Why does not Drainage make the Land too Dry ?—Adhesive Attraction.— 
The Finest Soils exert most Attraction.—How much Water different Soils 
hold by Attraction.—Capillary Attraction, Illustrated.—Power to Imbibe 
Moisture from the Air.—Weight Absorbed by 1,000 lbs. in 12 Hours.— 
Dew, Cause of.—Dew Point.—Cause of Frost.—Why Covering Plants 
Protects from Frost.—Dew Imparts Warmth.—Idea that the Moon Pro¬ 
motes Putrefaction.—Quantity of Dew. 

Tile first and most natural objection made, by those not 
practically familiar with drainage operations, to the whole 
system is, that the drains w T ill draw out so much of the 
water from the soil, as to leave it too dry for the crops. 

If a cask be filled with round stones, or with musket 
balls, or with large shot, and with water to the surface, 
and then an opening be made at the bottom of the cask, 
all the water, except a thin film adhering to the surface 
of the vessel and its contents, will immediately run out. 

If now, the same cask be filled with the dried soil of 
any cultivated field, and this soil be saturated with water, 
a part only of the water can be drawn out at the bottom. 
The soil in the cask will remain moist, retaining more or 
less of the water, according to the character of the soil. 

Why does not the water all run out of the soil, and 
leave it dry ? An answer may be found in the books, 
which is, in reality, but a re-statement of the fact, by 
reference to a principle of nature, by no means intelligible 
to finite minds, called attraction. If two substances are 


POWER TO ABSORB MOISTURE. 


301 


placed in close contact with each other, they cannot be 
separated without a certain amount of force. 

II It we wet the surfaces of two pieces of glass, and place them 
in contact, we shall find that they adhere to each other, and that, in¬ 
dependently of the effect of the pressure of the air, they oppose con¬ 
siderable resistance to any attempt to separate them. Again, if we bring 
any substance, as the blade of a knife, in contact with water, the water 
adheres to the blade in a thin film, and remains, by what is termed 
adhesive attraction . This property resides in the surface of bodies, 
and is in proportion to the extent of its surface. 

“ Soils possess this property, in common with all other bodies, and 
possess it, in a greater or less degree, according to the aggregate surface 
which the particles of a given bulk present. Thus, clay may, by means 
of kneading, be made to contain so large a quantity of water, as that, 
at last, it may almost be supposed to be divided into infinitesimally 
thin layers, having each a film of water adhering to it on either side. 

Such soils, again, as sand or chalk, the particles of which are coarser 

exert a less degree of adhesive attraction for water.”— Cyc. of Ag. : 695. 

Professor Schiibler, of Tubingen, gives the results of 
experiments upon this point. By dropping water upon 
dried soils of different kinds, until it began to drop from 
the bottom, he found that 100 lbs. of soil held by attrac¬ 
tion, as follows : 

Sand. 25 lbs. of water. 

Loamy Soil. 40 u 

Clay Loam. 50 li 

Pure Clay. 70 “ 

Mr. Shedd, of Boston, gives the result of a recent ex¬ 
periment of his own on this point. He writes thus : 

II I have made an experiment with a soil of ordinary tenacity, to 
ascertain how much water it would hold in suspension, with the follow¬ 
ing result: One cubic foot of earth held 0.4826434 cubic feet of water: 
three feet of dry soil of that character will receive 1.44793 ft. vertical 
depth of water before any drains off, or seventeen and three-quarter 
inches, equal to nearly six month’s rain-fall. One cubic foot of earth 
held 3.53713 gallons of water, or if drains are three feet deep, one 
square foot of surface would receive 10.61 gallons of water, before 






302 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


saturation. Other soils would sustain a greater or less quantity, 
according to their character.” 

Besides this power of retaining water, when brought 
into contact with it, the soil has, in common with other 
porous bodies, the power of drawing up moisture, or of 
absorbing it, independent of gravitation, or of the weight 
of the water which aids to carry it down into the soil. 
This power is called capillary attraction , from the hair¬ 
like tubes used in early experiments. If very minute 
tubes, open at both ends, are placed upright, partly im¬ 
mersed in a vessel of water, the water rises in the tubes 
perceptibly higher than its general surface in the vessel. 
A sponge, from which water has been pressed out, held 
over a basin of water, so that its lower part touches the 
surface, draws up the water till it is saturated. A com¬ 
mon flower-pot, with a perforated bottom, and filled with 
dry earth, placed in a saucer of water, best illustrates this 
point. The water rises at once to a common level in the 
pot and outside. This represents the water-table in the 
soil of our fields. But, from this level, water will con¬ 
tinue to rise in the earth in the pot, till it is moistened to 
the surface, and this, too, is by capillary attraction. 

The tendency of water to ascend, however, is not the 
same in all soils. In coarse gravelly soils, the principle 
may not operate perfectly, because the interstices are too 
large, the weight of the water overcoming the power of 
attraction, as in the cask of stones or shot. In very fine 
clay, on the other hand, although it be absorptive and reten¬ 
tive of water, yet the particles are so fine, and the spaces 
between them so small, that this attraction, though sure, 
would be slow in operation. A loamy, light, well pul¬ 
verized soil, again, would perhaps furnish the best medium 
for the diffusion of water in this way. 

It is impossible to set limits to so uncertain a power as 
this of capillary attraction. We see that in minute "lass 


POWER TO ABSORB MOISTURE. 


303 


tubes, it has power to raise water a small fraction of an 
inch only. We see that, in the sponge or flower-pot, it 
has power to raise water many inches; and we know that, 
in the soil, moisture is thus attracted upwards several feet. 
By observing a saturated sponge in a saucer, we shall see 
that, although moist at the top, it holds more and more 
water to the bottom. So, in the saturated earth in a flower¬ 
pot, the earth, merely moist at the surface, is wet mud 
just above the water-table. So, in drained land, the capil¬ 
lary force which retained the water in the soil to the 
height of a few inches, is no longer able to sustain it, when 
the height is increased to feet, and a portion descends into 
the drain, leaving the surface comparatively dry. 

Thus, it would seem, that draining may modify the force 
of capillary attraction, while it cannot affect that of ad¬ 
hesive attraction. It may drain off surplus water, but, 
unaided, can never render any arable land too dry. If, 
however, the surplus water be speedily taken off by 
drainage, and the capillary attraction be greatly impaired, 
so that little water is drawn upwards by its force, will not 
the soil soon become parched by the heat of the sun, or, in 
other words, by evaporation ? 

Without stopping in this place, to speak of evaporation, 
we may answer, that, in our burning Summer heat, the 
earth would be burnt up too dry for any vegetation, were 
it not for a beneficent arrangement of Providence, which 
counteracts the effect of the sun’s rays, and of which we 
will now make mention. 

Power to imbibe moisture from the air. — We have 
spoken, in another place, of the absorption, by drained land, 
of fertilizing substances from the atmosphere. Dry soil 
has, too, a wonderful power of deriving moisture from the 
same source. 

“ When a portion of soil,” says Johnston, u is dried carefully over 
boiling water, or in an oven, and is then spread out upon a sheet of 


304 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


paper in the open air, it will gradually drink in watery vapor from the 
atmosphere, and will thus increase in weight. 

“ In hot climates and in dry seasons, this property is of great import¬ 
ance, restoring as it does, to the thirsty soil, and bringing within the 
reach of plants, a portion of the moisture, which, during the day, they 
had so copiously exhaled.” 

Different soils possess this power in unequal degrees. 
During a night of 12 hours, and when the air is moist, 
according to Schiibler, 1000 lbs. of perfectly dry 


Quartz sand will gain. 0 lbs. 

Calcareous sand. 2 u 

Loamy soil. 21 u 

Clay loam. 25 “ 

Pure agricultural clay.. 27 1 


Sir Humphrey Davy found, that the power of attraction 
for water, generally proved an index to the agricultural 
value of soils. It is, however, but one means of judging 
of their value. Peaty soils and strong clays are very ab¬ 
sorbent of water, although not always the best for culti¬ 
vation. 

Sir H. Davy gives the following results of his experi¬ 
ments. When made perfectly dry, 1000 lbs. of a 


Very fertile soil from East Lothian, gained in an hour. 18 lbs. 

Very fertile soil from Somersetshire. 16 “ 

Soil, worth 45s., (rent) from Essex. 13 11 

Sandy soil, worth 285., from Essex.•. 11 u 

Coarse sand, worth 155.. 8 u 

Soil of Bagshot Heath. 3 u 


“ This sort of attraction, however,” suggests a writer in the Cyclopedia 
of Agriculture, it may be believed, depends upon other causes besides 
the attraction of adhesion. The power of attraction, which certain sub¬ 
stances exhibit for the vapor of water, is more akin to the force which 
enables certain porous bodies to absorb and retain many times their 
volume of the different gases; as charcoal, of ammonia, of which it is 
said to absorb ninety times its own bulk.” 

Here again, we find in the soil, an inexplicable but be- 













POWER TO ABSORB MOISTURE. 


305 


neficont power, by which it supplies itself with moisture 
when it most needs it. 

Warm air is capable of holding more vapor than cooler 
air, and the very heat of Summer supplies it with moisture 
by evaporation from land and water. As the air is cooled, 
at nightfall, it must somewhere deposit the w T ater, which 
the hand of the Unseen presses out of it by condensation. 

The sun-dried surface of fertile, well drained soil, is in 
precisely the condition best adapted to receive the refresh¬ 
ing draught, and convey it to the thirsting plants. 

We may form some estimate of the vast amount ab¬ 
sorbed by an acre of land in a dry season, by considering 
that the clay loam, in the above statement, absorbed in 
12 hours a fortieth part of its own weight. 

OF DEW. 

Dew is one of the most ordinary forms in which mois¬ 
ture is deposited in and upon the soil, in its natural con¬ 
ditions. The absorbent power of artificially-dried soils, as 
has been seen, seems to depend much upon their chemical 
constitution ; and that topic has been considered, without 
special reference to the comparative temperature of the 
soil and atmosphere. The soil, as we have seen, absorbs 
moisture from the air, when both are of the same temper¬ 
ature, the amount absorbed depending also upon the phys¬ 
ical condition of the soil, and upon the comparative 
moisture of the soil and atmosphere. 

The deposition of dew results from a different law. All 
bodies throw off, at all times, heat, by radiation, as it is 
termed. In the day-time, the sun’s rays warm the earth, 
and the air is heated by it, and that nearest the surface is 
heated most. Evaporation is constantly going on from 
the earth and water, and loads the air with vapor, and the 
warmer the air, the more vapor it will hold. 

When the sun goes down, the earth still continues to 


306 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


throw off heat by radiation, and soon becomes cooler than 
.the air, unless the same amount of heat be returned, by 
radiation from other surfaces. Becoming cooler than the 
air, the soil or plants cool the air which comes in contact 
with them ; and thus cooled to a certain point, the air can¬ 
not hold all the vapor which it absorbed while warmer, 
and part of it is deposited upon the soil, plant, or other 
cool surface. This is dew ; and the temperature at which 
the air is saturated with vapor, is called the dew-point. 
If saturated at a given temperature with vapor, the air, 
when cooled below this point, must part w T ith a portion of 
the vapor, in some way; in the form of rain or mist, if in 
the air; in the form of dew, if on the surface of the earth. 

If, however, other surfaces, at night, radiate as much 
heat back to the earth as it throws off, the surface of the 
earth is not thus cooled, and there is no dew. Clouds 
radiate heat to the earth, and, therefore, there is less dew 
in cloudy than in clear nights. If the temperature of the 
earth sinks below the freezing-point, the aqueous vapor is 
frozen, and is then called f rost. 

To radiate back a portion of the heat thus thrown off by 
the soil and plants, gardeners cover their tender plants and 
vines with mats or boards, or even with thin cloth, and 
thus protect them from frost. If the covering touch the 
plants, they are often frozen, the heat being conducted off, 
by contact, to the covering, and thence radiated. Dew 
then is an effect, but not a cause, of cold. It imparts 
warmth, because it can be deposited only on objects cooler 
than itself. 

It has been supposed by many that the light of the moon 
promotes putrefaction. Pliny and Plutarch both affirm 
this to be true. Dew, by supplying moisture in the warm 
season, aids this process of decay. We have seen that 
dew is most abundant in clear nights; and although all 
clear nights are not moonlight nights, yet all moonlight 


POWER TO ABSORB MOISTURE. 


307 


nights are clear nights; and this, perhaps, furnishes suffi¬ 
cient grounds for this belief, as to the. influence of the 
moon. 

The quantity of dew deposited is not easily measured. 
It has, however, been estimated by Dr. Dalton, to amount, 
in England, to five inches of water in a year, or 500 tons 
to the acre, equal to about one-quarter of our rain-fall 
during the six summer months! 

Deep and well-pulverized soils attract much more 
moisture, in every form, from the atmosphere, than shal¬ 
low and compact soils. They, in fact, expose a much 
larger surface to the air. This is the reason why stirring 
the ground, even in the Summer drought, refreshes our 
fields of Indian corn. 


308 


FAEM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER XVII. 

INJURY OF LAND BY DRAINAGE. 


Most Land cannot be Over-drained.—Nature a Deep drainer.—Over-draining 
of Peaty Soils.—Lincolnshire Fens; Yisit to them in lSoL—56 Bushels of 
Wheat to the Acre.—Wet Meadows subside by Drainage.—Conclusions. 

Is there no danger of draining land too much ? May 
not land be over-drained ? These are questions often and 
very naturally asked, and which deserve careful consider¬ 
ation. The general answer would he that there is no 
danger to be apprehended from over-draining; that no 
water will run out of land that would be of advantage to 
our cultivated crops by being retained. In other words, 
soils generally hold, by capillary attraction, all the 
moisture that is of any advantage to the crops cultivated 
on them; and the water of drainage would, if retained 
for want of outlets, be stagnant, and produce more evil 
than good. 

We say this is generally true; but there are said to be 
exceptional cases, which it is proposed to consider. If we 
bear in mind the condition of most soils in Summer, w r e 
shall see that this apprehension of over-draining is ground¬ 
less. The fear is, that crops will suffer in time of drought, 
if thoroughly drained. How, we know that, in almost all 
New England, the water-table is many feet below the sur¬ 
face. Our wells indicate pretty accurately where the 
water-table is, and drains, unless cut as low as the surface 


INJURY BY DRAINAGE. 


309 


of the water m the wells, would not run a drop of water 
in Summer. 

Our farmers dig their wells twenty, and even fifty, feet 
deep, and expect that, every Summer, the water will sink 
to nearly that depth ; but they have no apprehension that 
their crops will become dry, because the water is not kept 
up to within three feet of the surface. 

The fact is, that Nature drains thoroughly the greater 
portion of all our lands ; so that artificial drainage, though 
it may remove surplus water from them more speedily 
in Spring, cannot make them more dry in Summer. And 
what thus happens naturally, on most of the land, with¬ 
out injury, cannot be a dangerous result to effect by 
drainage on lands of similar character. By thorough- 
drainage, we endeavor to make lands which have an im¬ 
pervious or very retentive subsoil near the surface, suffi¬ 
ciently open to allow the surplus water to pass off, as it 
does naturally on our most productive upland. 

OVER-DRAINING OF PEATY SOILS. 

No instance has yet been made public in America, of 
the injury of peat lands by over-drainage; but there is a 
general impression among English waiters, that peat soils 
are often injured in this way. The Lincolnshire Fens are 
cited by them, as illustrations of the fact, that these lands 
do not require deep drainage. 

Mr. Pusey says, ‘‘Every one who is practically ac¬ 
quainted with moory land, knows that such land may be 
easily over-drained, so that the soil becomes dusty or 
husky , as it is called—that is, like a dry sponge—the 
white crops flag, and the turnip leaves turn yellow in a 
long drought.” 

These Fens contain an immense extent of land. The 
Great Level of the Fens, it is said, contains 600,000 acres. 


310 


FARM DRAINAGE. 

Much of this was formerly covered by the tides, and all 
of it, as the name indicates, was of a marshy character. 
The water being excluded by embankments against the 
sea and rivers, and pumped out by steam engines, and 
the land under-drained generally with tiles, so that the 
height of the water is under the control of the proprietors, 
grave disputes have arisen as to the proper amount of 
drainage. 

An impression has heretofore prevailed, that these lands 
would be too dry if the water were pumped out, so as to 
reduce the water-table more than a foot or two below the 
surface, but this idea is now controverted. 

In July 1857, in company -with three of the best farm¬ 
ers in Lincolnshire, the writer visited the Fens, and care¬ 
fully examined the crops and drainage. We passed a day 
with one of the proprietors, w r ho gave us some information 
upon the point in question. He stated, that in general, the 
occupants of this land entertain the opinion, that the 
crops would be ruined by draining to the depth of four 
feet. So strongly was he impressed with the belief that 
a deeper drainage was desirable, that he had enclosed his 
own estate with separate embankments, and put up a steam- 
engine, and pumped out the water to the depth of four 
feet, while from the land all around him, it is pumped out 
only a foot and a half below the surface, though in Sum¬ 
mer it may sometimes fall somewhat lower. 

The crops on this land were astonishing. Our friends 
estimated that the wdieat then growing and nearly ripe, 
would yield fifty-six bushels to the acre. Although this 
was considered a very dry season, the crops on the land 
of our host were fully equal to the best upon the Fens. 

The soil upon that part of the Fens is now a fine black 
loam of twelve or eighteen inches depth, resting upon 
clay. Upon other portions, the soil is of various depth 
and character, resting sometimes upon gravel. 


311 


INJURY BY DRAINAGE. 

Attention is called to these facts here, to show that the 
common impression that these lands will not bear deep 
drainage, is controverted among the occupants themselves, 
and may prove to be one of those errors which becomes 
traditional, we hardly know how. 

Most peat meadows, in New England, when first re¬ 
lieved of stagnant water, are very light and spongy. The 
soil is filled with acids which require to be neutralized 
by an application of lime, or what is cheaper and equally 
effectual, by exposure to the atmosphere. These soils, 
when the water is suddenly drawn out of them, retain 
their bulk for a time, and are too porous and unsubstantial 
for cultivation. A season or two will cure this evil, in 
many cases. The soil will become more compact, and 
will often settle down many inches. It is necessary to 
bear this in mind in adjusting the drains, because a four- 
foot drain, when laid, may, by the mere subsidence of the 
land, become a three-foot drain, 

A hasty judgment, in any case, that the land is over¬ 
drained, should be suspended until the soil has acquired 
compactness by its own weight, and by the ameliorating 
effect of culture and the elements. 

Mr. Denton, alluding to the opinion of “many intelli¬ 
gent men, that low meadow-land should be treated differ¬ 
ently to upland pasture, and upland pasture differently to 
arable land,” says, “ My own observations bring me to 
the conclusion, that it is not possible to lay pasture-land 
too dry; for I have invariably remarked, during the recent 
dry Summer and Autumn particularly, that both in low¬ 
land meadows, and upland pastures, those lands which 
have been most thoroughly drained by deep and frequent 
drains, are those that have preserved the freshest and 
most profitable herbage.” 

While, therefore, we have much doubt whether any 
land, high or low, can be over-drained for general cultiva- 


312 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


tion, it is probable that a less expensive mode of drainage 
may be sometimes expedient for grass alone. 

While we believe that, in general, even peat soils may 
be safely drained to the same depth with other soil, there 
seems, to be a well-founded opinion that they may fre¬ 
quently be rendered productive by a less thorough system. 

The only safety for us, is in careful experiment with our 
own lands, which vary so much in character and location, 
that no precise rules can be prescribed for their treat¬ 
ment. 


OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 


313 


CHAPTER XVIII. 

OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 

Tiles will fill up, unless well dried.— Obstruction by Sand or Silt.—Obstruc¬ 
tions at the Outlet from Frogs, Moles, Action of Frost, and Cattle.—Obstruc¬ 
tion by Roots.—Willow, Ash, &c., Trees capricious.—Roots enter Peren¬ 
nial Streams.—Obstruction by Mangold Wurtzel.—Obstruction by Per- 
Oxide of Iron.—How Prevented.—Obstruction by the Joints Filling.— 
No Danger with Two-Incli Pipes.—Water through the Pores.—Collars.— 
How to Detect Obstructions. 

But won’t these tiles get filled up and stopped ? asks 
almost every inquirer on the subject of tile draining. 

Certainly, they will, if not laid with great care, and 
with all proper precautions against obstructions. It can¬ 
not be too often repeated, that tile-drainage requires 
science, and knowledge, and skill, as well as money; and 
no man should go into it blindfold, or with faith in his 
innate perceptions of right. If he does, his education will 
be expensive. 

It is proposed to mention all the various modes by 
which tiles have been known to be obstructed, and to 
suggest how the danger of failure, by means of them, may 
be obviated. 

Let not enterprising readers be alarmed at such an array 
of difficulties, for the more conspicuous they become, the 
less is the danger from them. 

Obstruction by Sand or Silt. Probably, more drains are 
rendered worthless, by being filled up with earthy matter, 
which passes with water through the joints of the tiles, 
than by every other cause. 

14 


314 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Fine sand will pass through the smallest aperture, if 
there is a current of water sufficient to move it, and silt, 
or the fine deposit of mud or other earth, which is held 
almost in solution in running water, is even more insinuat¬ 
ing in its ways than sand. 

Yery often, drains are filled up and ruined by these 
deposits; and, unless the fall be considerable, and the 
drain be laid with even descent, if earth of any kind find 
entrance, it must endanger the permanency of the work. 
To guard against the admission of everything but water, 
lay drains deep enough to be beyond the danger of water 
brusting in, in streamlets. Water should enter the drain 
at the bottom, by rising to the level of the tiles, and 
not by sinking from the surface directly to them. If the 
land is sandy, great care must be used. In draining 
through flowing sand, especially if there be a quick 
descent, the precaution of sheathing tiles is resorted to. 
That is done by putting small tiles inside of larger ones, 
breaking joints inside, and thus laying a double drain. 
This is only necessary, however, in spots of sand full of 
spring-water. Next best to this mode, is the use of collars 
over the joints, but these are not often used, though recom¬ 
mended for sandy land. 

At least, in all land not perfectly sound, be careful to 
secure the joints in some way. An inverted turf, care¬ 
fully laid over the joint, is oftenest used. Good, clean, 
fine gravel is, perhaps, best of all. Spent tan bark, when 
it is to be conveniently procured, is excellent, because it 
strains out the earth, while it freely admits water; and any 
particles of tan that find entrance, are floated out upon 

the water. The same mav be said of sawdust. 

«/ 

To secure the exit of earth that may enter at the joints, 
there should be care that the tiles be smooth inside, that 
they be laid exactly in line, and that there be a continuous 
descent. If there be any place where the water rises in the 


OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 


315 


tiles, in that place, every particle of sand, or other 
matter heavier than water, will be likely to stop, until a 
barrier is formed, and the drain stopped. 

In speaking of the forms of tiles, the superiority of 
rounded openings over those with flat bottom has been 
shown. The greater head of water in a round pipe, gives 
it force to drive before it all obstructions, and so tends to 
keep the drain clear. 

Obstructions at the Outlet. The water from deep drains 
is usually very clear, and cattle find the outlet a conve¬ 
nient place to drink at, and constantly tread up the soft 
ground there, and obstruct the flow of water. All earthy 
matter, and chemical solutions of iron, and the like, tend 
to accumulate by deposit at the outlet. Frogs and mice, 
and insects of many kinds, collect about such places, and 
creep into the drains. The action of frost in cold regions 
displaces the earth, and even masonry, if not well laid; 
and back-water, by flowing into the drains, hinders the 
free passage of water. 

All these causes tend to obstruct drains at the outlet. 
If once stopped there, the whole pipe becomes filled with 
stagnant water, which deposits all its earthy matter, and 
soon becomes obstructed at other points, and so becomes 
useless. The outlet must be rendered secure from all 
these dangers, at all seasons, by some such means as are 
suggested in the chapter on the Arrangement of Drains. ' 

Obstruction by roots. On the author’s farm in Exeter, 
a wooden drain, to carry off waste water from a -watering 
place, was laid, with a triangular opening of about four 
inches. This was found to be obstructed the second year 
after it was laid; and upon taking it up, it proved to be 
entirely filled for several feet, with -willow roots, which 
grew like long, fine grass, thickly matted together, so as 
entirely to close the drain. There was ti row of large 
willows about thirty feet distant, and as the drain was but 


316 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


about two feet deep, they found their way easily to it, and 
entering between the rough joints of the boards, not very 
carefully fitted, fattened on the spring water till they out¬ 
grew their new house. 

A neighbor says, he never wants a tree within ten rods 
of any land he desires to plow; and it would be unsafe to 
undertake to set limits to the extent of the roots of trees. 
“No crevice, however small,” says a writer, “is proof 
against the entrance of the roots of water-loving trees.” 

The behavior of roots is, however, very capricious in 
this matter; for, while occasional instances occur of drains 
being obstructed by them, it is a very common thing for 
drains to operate perfectly for indefinite periods, where 
they run through forests and orchards for long distances. 
They, however, who lay drains near to willows and ashes, 
and the like cold-w T ater drinkers, must do it at the peril of 
which they are warned. 

Laying the tiles deep and with collars will afford the 
best security from all danger of this kind. 

Thos. Gisborne, Esq., in a note to the edition of his 
Essay on Drainage published in 1852, says: 

“ My own experience as to roots, in connection with deep pipe drain¬ 
ing, is as follows :—I have never known roots to obstruct a pipe through 
which there was not a perennial stream. The flow of water in Sum¬ 
mer and early Autumn appears to furnish the attraction. I have never 
discovered that the roots of any esculent vegetable have obstructed a 
pipe. The trees which, by my own personal observation, I have found 
to be most dangerous, have been red willow, black Italian poplar, alder, 
ash, and broad-leaved elm. I have many alders in close contiguity 
with important drains; and, though I have never convicted one, I can¬ 
not doubt that they are dangerous. Oak, and black and white thorns, 
I have not detected, nor do I suspect them. The guilty trees have, in 
every instance, been young and free growing; I have never convicted 
an adult.” 

Mangold-wurzel, it is said by several writers, will some¬ 
times grow doWn into tile drains, even to the depth of four 
feet, and entirely obstruct them; but those are cases of 


OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 


317 


very rare occurrence. In thousands of instances, mangolds 
have been cultivated on drained land, even where tiles 
were but feet deep, without causing any obstruction of 
the drains. Any reader who is curious in such matters, 
may find in the appendix to the 10th Yol. of the Journal 
of the Royal Ag. Soc., a singular instance of obstruction 
of drains by the roots of the mangold, as well as instances 
of obstructions by the roots of trees. 

Obstruction by Per-oxidc of Iron. In the author’s 
barn-cellar is a watering place, supplied by a half-inch 
lead pipe, from a spring some eight rods distant. This pipe 
several times in a year, sometimes once a week, in cold 
weather, is entirely stopped. The stream of w^ater is never 
much larger than a lead pencil. We usually start it with 
a sort of syringe, by forcing into the outlet a quantity of 
water. It then runs very thick, and of the color of iron 
rust, sometimes several pails full, and will then run clear 
for weeks or months, perhaj)s. In the tub which receives 
the water, there is always a large deposit of this same col¬ 
ored substance; and along the street near by, where the 
water oozes out of the bank, there is this same appearance 
of iron. This deposit is, in common language, called per¬ 
oxide of iron, though this term is not, by chemists of the 
present day, deemed sufficiently accurate, and the word 
sesqui-oxide is preferred in scientific works. 

Iron exists in all animal and vegetable matter, and in 
all soils, to some extent. It exists as protoxide of iron, in 
wdiich one atom of iron always combines with one atom 
of oxygen, and it exists as sesqui-oxide of iron, from the 
Latin scsqui , which means one and a half, in which one 
and a half atoms of oxygen combine with one atom of 
iron. The less accurate term, per-oxide, has been adopted 
here, because it is found in general use by writers on 
drainage. 

The theory is that the iron exists in the soil, and is held 


318 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


in solution in water as a protoxide, and is converted into 
per-oxide by contact with the air, either in the drains or 
at their outlets, and is then deposited at the bottom of the 
water. 

In a pipe running full there w T ould be, upon this theory, 
no exposure to the air, which should form the per-oxide. 
In the case stated, it is probable that the per-oxide is formed 
at the exposed surface of a large cash, at the spring, and 
is carried into the pipe, as it is precipitated. Common 
drain pipes would be full of air, which might, perhaps, in 
a feeble current, be sufficient to cause this deposit. 

Occasionally, cases have occurred of obstruction from 
this cause, and whenever the signs of this deposit are vis¬ 
ible about the field to be drained, care must be used to 
guard against it in draining. 

To guard against obstruction from per-oxide of iron, 
tiles should be laid deep, closely jointed or collared, with 
great care that the fall be continuous, and especially that 
there be a quick fall at the junctions of minor drains with 
mains, and a clear outlet. 

Mr. Beattie,of Aberdeen, says: “Before adopting 4 
feet drains, I had much difficulty in dealing with the iron 
ore which generally appeared at two to three feet from 
the surface, but by the extra depth the water filters off to 
the pipes free of ore. Occasionally, iron ore is found at a 
greater depth, but the floating substance is then in most 
cases lighter, and does not adhere to the pipes in the same 
way as that found near the surface. 57 Arrangements should 
also be made for examining the drains by means of wells, 
and for flushing them by holding back the water until the 
drains are filled, and then letting it suddenly off, or, by 
occasionally admitting a stream of water at the upper end, 
when practicable, and thus washing out the pipes. Mr. 
Denton says : “ It is found that the use of this contrivance 


OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 


319 


for flushing, will get rid of the per-oxide of iron, about 
which so much complaint is made.” 

Obstruction by Filling at the Joints. One would sup¬ 
pose that tiles might frequently be prevented from receiv¬ 
ing water, by the filling up of the crevices between them. 
If water poured on to tiles in a stream, it would be likely 
to carry into these openings enough earthy matter to fill 
them ; but the wdiole theory of thorough-drainage rests 
upon the idea of slow percolation—of the passage of water 
in the form of fine dew, as it were—through the motion¬ 
less particles which compose the soil; and, if drains are 
properly laid, there can be no motion of particles of earth, 
either into or towards the tiles. The water should soak 
through the ground precisely as it does through a wet 
cloth. 

In an article in the Journal of the Society of Arts, 
published in 1855, Mr. Thomas Arkell states that in 1846 
he had drained a few acres with l£ inch pipes, about three 
feet deep, and 21 to 25 feet apart. The drains acted well, 
and the land was tolerably dry and healthy for the first 
few years; but afterwards, in wet seasons, it was very wet, 
and appeared full of water, like undrainedl and, although 
at the time all the drains were running, but very slowly. 
His conclusion was that mud had entered the crevices, and 
stopped the water out. Tie says he has known other per¬ 
sons, who had used small pipes, who had suffered in the 
same way. There are many persons still in England, who 
are so apprehensive on this point, that they continue to 
use liorse-shoe tiles, or, as they are sometimes called, 
“ tops and bottoms,” which admit water more freely along 
the joints. 

The most skillful engineers, however, decidedly prefer 
round pipes, but recommend that none smaller than one- 
and-a-half-inch be used, and prefer two-inch to any smaller 
size. The circumference of a two-inch pipe is not far 


320 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


from nine inches, while that of a one-inch pipe, of com¬ 
mon thickness, is about half that, so that the opening is 
twice as extensive in the two-inch, pipes as in the one-inch 
pipe. 

The ascertained instances of the obstruction of pipes, by 
excluding the water from the joints, are very few. Ho 
doubt that clay, puddled in upon the tiles when laid, might 
have this effect; but they who have experience in tile- 
drainage, will bear witness that there is far more difficulty 
in excluding sand and mud, than there is in admitting 
water. 

It is thought, by some persons, that sufficient water to 
drain land may be admitted through the pores of the tiles. 
We have no such faith. The opinion of Mr. Parkes, that 
about 500 times as much water enters at the crevices be¬ 
tween each pair of tiles, as is absorbed through the tiles 
themselves, we think to be far nearer the truth. 

Collars have a great tendency to prevent the closing up 
of the crevices between tiles; but injuries to drains laid 
at proper depths, with two-inch pipes, even without collars, 
must be very rare. Indeed, no single case of a drain ob¬ 
structed in this way, when laid four feet deep, has yet 
come within our reading or observation, and it is rather 
as a possible, than even a probable, cause of failure, that 
it has been mentioned. 

HOW TO DETECT OBSTRUCTIONS IN DRAINS. 

When a drain is entirely obstructed, if there is a con¬ 
siderable flow of water, and the ground is much descend¬ 
ing, the water will at once press through the joints of the 
pipes, and show itself at the surface. By thrusting down 
a bar along the course of the drain, the place of the ob¬ 
struction will be readily determined; for the water will, at 
the point of greatest pressure, burst up in the hole made 
by the bar, like a spring, while below the point of obstruc- 


OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. 


321 


tion, there will be no upward pressure of the water, and 
above it, the pressure will be less the farther we go. 

The point being determined, it is the work of but few 
minutes to dig down upon the drain, remove carefully a 
few pipes, and take out the frog, or mouse, or the broken 
tile, if such be the cause of the difficulty. If silt or earth 
has caused the obstruction, it is probably because of a de¬ 
pression in the line of the drain, or a defect in some junc¬ 
tion with other drains, and this may require the taking up 
of more or less of the pipes. 

If there be but little fall in the drains, the obstruction 
will not be so readily found; but the effect of the water 
will soon be observed at the surface, both in keeping the - 
soil wet, and in chilling the vegetation upon it. If pro¬ 
per peep-holes have been provided, the place of any ob¬ 
struction may readily be determined, at a glance into 
them. 

Upon our own land, w r e have had two or three instances 
of obstruction by sand, very soon after the tiles were laid, 
and always at the junction of drains imperfectly secured 
with bricks, before we had procured proper branch-pipes 
for the purpose. 

A little experience will enable the proprietor at once to 
detect any failure of his drains, and to apply the proper 
remedy. Obstructions from silt and sand are much more 
likely to occur during the first season after the drains are 
laid, than afterwards, because the earth is loose about the 
pipes, and more liable to be washed into the joints, than 
after it has become compact. 

On the whole, we believe the danger to tile-drains, of 
obstruction, is very little, provided good tiles are used, and 
proper care is exercised in laying them. 


14 * 


322 


FAEM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTEE XIX. 

DRAINAGE OF STIFF CLAYS.. 

Clay not impervious, or it could not be wet and dried.—Puddling, what is. 
—Water will stand over Drains on Puddled Soil.—Cracking of Clays by 
Drying.—Drained Clays improve by time.—Passage of Water through 
Clay makes it permeable.—Experiment by Mr. Pettibone, of Vermont.— 
Pressure of Water in saturated Soil. 

It is a common impression that clay is impervious to 
water, and that, therefore, a clay soil cannot be drained, 
especially by deep under-drains. A moment’s reflection 
will satisfy any one that such land is not absolutely im¬ 
pervious. We find such land is wet in Spring, at any 
depth ; and, in the latter part of Summer, we find it com¬ 
paratively dry. How comes it w r et, at any time, if water 
does not go into it? And how comes it dry, at any time, 
if water does not come out of it ? 

In treating of the power of the soil to absorb moisture, 
w y e have shown that a clay soil will absorb more than 
half its weight and bulk of water, and that it holds more 
water than any other soil, with, perhaps, the single excep¬ 
tion of peat. 

The facts, however, that clay may be wet, and may be 
dried, and that it readily absorbs large quantities of 
water, though they prove conclusively that it is not im¬ 
pervious to water, yet do not prove that water will pass 
through it with sufficient rapidity to answer the practical 
purposes of drainage for agriculture. This point can only 
be satisfactorily determined by experiment. It is not neces¬ 
sary, however, that each farmer should try the experiment 


DRAINAGE OF CLAYS. 


323 


tor himself; because, although we are very apt to think our 
own case an exception to all general rules, it is not really 
probable that any new kind of clay will be discovered 
hereafter, that is so different from all other clay that is 
known, that established principles will not apply to it.. 
So far as our own observation extends, owners of clay 
farms always over-estimate the difficulty of draining their 
land. There are certain notorious facts with regard to 
clay, which mislead the judgment of men on this point. 
One of these facts is, that clay is used for stopping water, 
by the process called puddling. Puddled clay is used 
for the bottom of ponds, and of canals, and of reservoirs, 
and, for such purposes, is regarded as nearly, or quite 
impervious. 

We see that, on our clay fields, water stands upon the 
surface, especially in the ruts of wheels, and on headlands 
much trodden, late in the season, and when, in other 
places, it has disappeared. This is due, also, to puddling. 

Puddling is merely the working of wet clay, or other 
soil, by beating, or treading, or stirring, until its particles 
are so finely divided that water has an exceedingly slow 
passage between them, with ordinary pressure. We see 
the effect of this operation on common highways, where 
water often stands for many days in puddles, because the 
surface has been ground so fine, and rendered so compact, 
by wheels and horses, that the water cannot find passage. 
This, however, is not the natural condition of any clay; 
nor can any clay be kept in this condition, except by 
being constantly wet. If once dried, or subjected to the 
action of frost, the soil resumes its natural condition of 
porosity, as will be presently explained. They who object 
to deep drainage, or to the possibility of draining stiff 
clays, point to the fact that water may be seen standing 
directly over the drains, on thorough-drained fields. We 
have seen this on our own fields. In one instance, we 


324 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


had, after laying tiles through a field, at 50 feet intervals, 
in the same Autumn, when the land was wet, teamed 
across it a large quantity of soil for compost, with a heavy 
ox-team. The next Spring, the water stood for many 
days in that track which passed across tile-drains, after it 
had disappeared elsewhere in the field. A fine crop of 
Indian corn grew on the field that year, hut the effect of 
the puddling was visible the whole season. “ One inch 
of wet and worked clay,” says a scientific writer, “ will 
prevent water from passing through, so long as it is kept 
wet, as effectually as a yard will do.” 

11 If,” says Gisborne, 11 you eat off turnips with sheep, if you plow 
the land, or cart on it, or in any way puddle it, when it is wet, of 
course the water will lie on the surface, and will not go to your drains. 
A four-foot drain may go very near a pit, or a water-course, without 
attracting water from either, because water-courses almost invariably 
puddle their beds; and the same effect is produced in pits by the treading 
of cattle, and even by the motion of the water produced by wind. A 
very thin film of puddle, always wet on one side, is impervious, because 
it cannot crackP 

In those four words, we find an allusion to the whole 
mystery of the drainage of clays—a key which unlocks 
the secret hy which the toughest of these soils may be 
converted, as by a fairy charm, to fields of waving grain. 

CRACKING OF CLAYS BY DRYING. 

“ In drying under the influence of the sun,” says Prof. 
Johnston, u soils shrink in, and thus diminish in bulk, in 
proportion to the quantity of clay, or of peaty matter, 
they contain. Sand scarcely diminishes at all in bulk by 
drying; but peat shrinks one-fifth in bulk, and strong 
agricultural clay nearly as much.” By laying drains in 
land, we take from it that portion of the water that will 
run out at the bottom. The sun, by evaporation, then 
takes out a portion at the top. The soil is thus contracted, 
and, as the ends of the field cannot approach each other, 


DRAINAGE OF CLAYS. 


325 


both soil and subsoil are torn apart, and divided by a 
network of cracks and fissures. Every one who is familiar 
with clay land, of who has observed the bottom of a ditch 
or frog pond by the roadside, must have observed these 
cracks, thus caused by the contraction of the soil in dry¬ 
ing. The same contraction occurs in drier land, by cold, 
in Winter; by which, in cold regions, deep rents are made 
in the earth, and reports, like those of cannon, are often 
heard. The cracking by drying, however, is more cpiiet 
in its effects, merely dividing the ground, noiselessly, into 
smaller and smaller masses, as the process proceeds. 
Were it not for this process, it may well be doubted 
whether clay lands could be effectually drained at all. 
Nature, however, seems to second our efforts here, for we 
have seen that the stiffer the clay, the greater the con¬ 
traction, and the more the soil is split up and rendered 
permeable by this operation. 

These cracks are found, by observation, to commence 
at the drains, and extend further and further, in almost 
straight lines, into the subsoil, forming so many minor 
drains, or feeders, all leading to the tiles. These main 
fissures have numerous smaller ones diverging from them, 
so that the whole mass is divided and subdivided into the 
most minute portions. The main fissures gradually, en¬ 
large, as the dryness increases, and, at the same time, 
lengthen out; so that, in a very dry season, they may be 
traced the whole way between the drains. The following 
cut will give some idea of these cracks, or fissures, as 
they exist in a dry time: 






























































326 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Mr. Gisborne says : Clay lands always shrink and crack with 
drought ] and the stiffer the clay, the greater the shrinking, as brick- 
makers well know. In the great drought thirty-six years ago, we saw, 
in a very retentive soil in the Vale of Belvoir, cracks which it was 
not very pleasant to ride among. This very Summer, on land, which, 
with reference to this very subject, the owner stated to be imper¬ 
vious, we put a walking-stick three feet into a sun-crack with¬ 
out finding a bottom, and the whole surface was a net-work of 
cracks. In the drained soil, the roots follow the threads of vegetable 
mould which have been washed into the cracks, and get an abiding 
tenure. Earth-worms follow either the roots or the mould. Permanent 
schisms arc established in the clay, and its w r hole character is 
changed/’ 

In the United States, the supply of rain is far less uni¬ 
form than in England, and much severer droughts are ex¬ 
perienced. Titus the contraction, and consequent cracking 
of the soil, must he greater here than in that country. 

In laying drains more than four feet deep, in the stiffest 
clay which the author has seen, in a neighborhood furnish¬ 
ing abundance of brick and potter’s clay, these cracks 
were seen to extend to the verv bottoms of the drains, not 
in single fissures from top to bottom, but in innumerable 
seams running in all directions, so that the earth, moved 
with the pickaxe, came up in little cubes and flakes, and 
could be separated into pieces of an inch or less diameter. 
This was on a ridge which received no w T ater except from 
the clouds, having no springs in or upon it, yet so nearly 
impervious to water, that it remained soft and muddy till 
late in June. In Midsummer, however, under our burn¬ 
ing sun, it had, by evaporation, been so much dried as to 
produce the effect described. 

In England, we learn, that these cracks extend to the depth of four 
feet or more. Mr. Hewitt Davis stated in a public discussion, with re¬ 
ference to draining strong soils, that, “ he gave four feet as the mini¬ 
mum depth of the drains in these soils, because he had always found 
that the cracks and fissures formed by the drought and changes of tem¬ 
perature, on the strongest clay, and which made these soils permeable, 


DRAINAGE OF CLAYS. 


327 


extended below this depth, and the water from the surface might be 
made to reach the drains at this distance.” 

In clay that has never been dried, as for instance, that 
found under wet meadows from which the water has but 
recently been drawn, we should not, of course, expect to 
find these cracks. Accordingly, we find sometimes in clay 
pits, excavated below the permanent water-line, and in 
wells, that the clay is in a compact mass, and tears apart 
without exhibiting anything like these divisions. 

We should not expect that, on such a clay, the full effect 
of drainage would be at once apparent. The water falling 
on the surface would very slowly find its way downward, 
at first. But after the heat of Slimmer, aided by the 
drains underneath, had contracted and cracked the soil, 
passages for the water would soon be found, and, after 
a few years, the whole mass, to the depth of the drains, 
would become open and permeable. As an old English 
farmer said of his drains, “ They do better year by year ; 
the water gets a habit of coming to them.” Although 
this be not philosophical language, yet the fact is correctly 
stated. Water tends towards the lowest openings. A 
deep well often diverts the underground stream from a 
shallower well, and lays it dry. A single railroad cut some¬ 
times draws off the supply of water from a whole neigh¬ 
borhood. Passages thus formed are enlarged by the pres¬ 
sure of the water, and new ones are opened by the causes 
already suggested, till the drainage becomes perfect for 
all practical purposes. So much is this cracking process 
relied on to facilitate drainage, that skillful drainers fre¬ 
quently leave their ditches partly open, after laying the 
tiles, that the heat may produce the more effect during 
the first season. 

As to the depth of drains in stiff clays, enough has 
already been said, under the appropriate title. In Eng¬ 
land, the weight of authority is in favor of four-foot drains. 


328 FARM DRAINAGE. 

In this country, a less depth has thus far, in general, been 
adopted in practice, but it is believed that this has been 
because a greater depth has not been tried. It is under¬ 
stood, that the most successful drainers in the State of Hew 
York, have been satisfied with three-foot drains, not, as it 
is believed, because there is any instance on record, in this 
country, of the failure of four-foot drains, but because the 
effect of more shallow drains has been so satisfactory, that 
it has been thought a useless expense to go deeper. To 
Mr. Johnston and to Mr. Delafield, of Seneca County, 
the country is greatly indebted for their enterprise and 
leadership in the matter of drainage. Mr. Johnston gives 
it as his opinion, that “ three feet is deep enough, if the 
bottom is hard enough to lay tiles on ; if not, go deeper.” 

Without intimating that any different mode of drainage 
than that adopted, would have been better on Mr. John¬ 
ston’s farm, we should be unwilling to surrender, even to 
the opinion of Mr. Johnston and his friends, our convic¬ 
tion that, in general, three-foot drains are too shallow. 
Mr. Johnston expressly disclaims any experience in drain¬ 
ing a proper clay soil. In the Country Gentleman , of 
June 10th, 1818, he says : 

“ In a subsoil that is impervious to water, either by being a red 
clay, blue clay, or hard-pan, within a foot of the surface, I would re¬ 
commend farmers to feel their way very cautiously in draining. If 
tiles and labor were as low here as in Great Britain, we could afford to 
make drains sixteen feet apart in such land, and then, by loosening the 
soil, say twenty inches deep, by the subsoil plow, I think such land 
might be made perfectly dry : but I don’t think the time is yet come, 
considering the cost of tiles and labor, to undertake such an outlay ; 
but still it might pay in the end. I have found only a little of red 
clay subsoil in draining my farm. I never had any blue clay on 
my farm, or hard-pan, to trouble me ; but I can readily perceive 
that it must be equally bad to drain as the tenacious red clay. If 
I were going to purchase another farm, I would look a great deal 
more to the subsoil than the surface soil. If the subsoil is right, 
the surface soil, I think, cannot be wrong.” 


DRAINAGE OF CLAYS. 


329 


In the same paper, under date of July 8th, Mr. John¬ 
ston says, “ The only experience I have had in digging 
into soils, to judge of draining out of this county (Seneca), 
was in Niagara.” He states the result of his observations 
thus : 

“ A few inches below the surface I found a stiff blue clay for about ten 
inches deep, and as impervious to water as so much iron. Underneath that 
blue clay, I found a red clay, apparently impervious to water ; but, as 
water could not get through the blue, I could only guess at that; 
and, after spending the greater part of the day, with five men dig¬ 
ging holes from four to five feet deep, I found I knew no more how 
such land could be drained, than a man who had never seen a drain 
dug. I advised the gentleman to try a few experiments, by digging 
a few ditches, as I laid them out, and plowing as deep as possible 
with a subsoil plow, but to get no tile until he saw if he could get a run 
of water. Ho paid my traveling expenses, treated me very kindly, 
and I have heard nothing from him since. 

u Now, if your correspondent’s soil and subsoil is similar to that soil, 
I would advise him to feel his way cautiously in draining. Certainly, 
no man would be fool enough to dig ditches and lay tile, if there is no 
water to carry off.” 

In the Country Gentleman of Nov. 18th, 1858, we find 
an interesting statement, by John S. Pettibone, of Man¬ 
chester, Vermont, partly in reply to the statement of Mr. 
Johnston. 

The experiment by Mr. Pettibone, showing the increased 
permeability of clay, merely by the passage of water through 
it, is very interesting. He says, in his letter to the 
editor : 

“ When so experienced a drainer as Mr. Johnston expresses an opin¬ 
ion that some soils cannot be drained, it is important we should know 
what the soil is which cannot be drained. He uses the word stiff blue 
clay, as descriptive of the soil which cannot be drained. # # # 

“ I had taken a specimen of what I thought to be stiff blue clay. 
That clay, when wet, as taken out, would hold water about as well as 
iron : yet, from experiments I have made, I am confident that such clay 
soil can be drained, and at much less expense than a hard-pan soil. 
Water will pass through such clay, and the clay become dry - and after 


330 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


it becomes once dry, water will, I am convinced, readily pass down 
through such stiff blue clay. The specimen was taken about three feet 
below the surface, and on a level with a brook which runs through this 
clay soil. I filled a one hundred-pound nail-keg with clay taken from 
the same place. It was so wet, that by shaking, it came to a level, and 
water rose to the top of the clay. I had made holes in the bottom of 
the keg, and set it up on blocks. After twenty-four hours I came almost 
to the conclusion Mr. Johnston did, that water would not pass through 
this clay. This trial was during the hot, dry weather last Summer 
After some ten or twelve days the clay appeared to be dry. I then 
made a basin-like excavation in the top of the clay, and put water in, 
and the water disappeared rather slowly. I filled the basin with water 
frequently, and the oftener I filled it, the more readily it passed off. I 
left it for more than a week, when we had a heavy shower. After the 
shower I examined the keg, and not a drop of water was to be seen. I 
then took a chisel and cut a hole six inches down. I took out a piece 
like the one I dried in the house, and laid that up till it was perfectly 
dry. There was a plain difference between the appearance of the two 
pieces. The texture, I should say, was quite different. That through 
which the water had passed, after it had been dried, was more open and 
porous. It did not possess so much of the blue cast. In less than one 
hour after the rain fell, the clay taken six inches from the top of the 
keg would crumble by rubbing in the hand.” 

When we observe the effect of heat in opening clays to 
water by cracking, and the effect of the water itself, aided, 
as it doubtless is, by the action of the air, in rendering the 
soil permeable, we hardly need feel discouraged if the 
question rested entirely on this evidence; but when we 
consider that thousands upon thousands of acres of the 
stiffest clays have been, in England and Scotland, rescued 
from utter barrenness by drainage, and made to yield the 
largest crops, we should regard the question of practica¬ 
bility as settled. The only question left for decision is 
whether, under all the circumstances of each particular 
case, the operation of draining our clay lands will be 
expedient—whether their increased value will pay the 
expense. It is often objected to deep drains in clays, that 
it is so far down to the drains that the water cannot read 


DRAINAGE OF CLAYS. 


331 


ily pass through so large a mass. If we think merely of 
a drop of rain falling on the surface, and obliged to find its 
devious way through the mazes of cracks and particles till 
it gains an outlet at the bottom of four feet of clay, it does 
seem a discouraging journey for the poor little solitary 
thing; but there is a more correct view of the matter, 
which somewhat relieves the difficulty. 

All the water that will run out of the soil has departed; 
but the soil holds a vast amount still, by attraction. The 
rain begins to fall; and when the soil is saturated, a portion 
passes into the drain; but it is, by no means, the water 
which last fell upon the surface, but that which was next 
the drain before the rain fell. If you pour water into a 
tube that is nearly full, the water which will first run 
from the other end is manifestly not that which you pour 
in. So the ground is full of little tubes, open at both 
ends, in which the water is held by attraction. A drop 
upon the surface drives out a drop at the lower end, into 
to the drain, and so the process goes on—the drains begin¬ 
ning to run as soon as the rain commences, and ceasing to 
flow only when the principle of attraction balances the 
power of gravitation. 

PRESSURE OF WATER IN THE SOIL. 

In connection with the passage of water through clay soil, 
it may be appropriate to advert to the question sometimes 
mooted, whether in a soil filled with water, at four feet 
depth, there is the same pressure as there would be, at the 
same depth, in a river or pond. The pressure of fluids on 
a given area, is, ordinarily, in proportion to their vertical 
height; and the pressure of a column of water, four feet high, 
would be sufficient to drive the lower particles into an 
opening like a drain, with considerable force, and the upper 
part of such a column would essentially aid the lower part 
in its downward passage. Does this pressure exist ? Mr. 
Gisborne speaks undoubtingly on this point, thus : 


332 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


cc We will assume the drain to be four feet deep, and the water-table 
to be at one foot below the surface of the earth. Every particle of 
water which lies at three feet below the water-table, has on it the 
pressure of a column of water three feet high. This pressure will drive 
the particle in any direction in which it finds no resistance, with a 
rapidity varying inversely to the friction of the medium through which 
the column acts. The bottom of our drains will offer no resistance, and 
into it particles of water will be pushed, in conformity with the rule 
we have stated; rapidly, if the medium opposes little friction; slowly, 
if it opposes much. The water so pushed in runs off by the drain, the 
column of pressure being diminished in proportion to the water which 
runs off.” 

Mr. Thomas Arkell, in a paper read before the Society 
of Arts, in 1S55, says, on this point: 

££ The pressure due to a head of water of four or five feet, may be 
imagined from the force with which water will come through the crev¬ 
ices of a hatch, with that depth of water above it. Now, there is the 
same pressure of water to enter the vacuum in the pipe-drain, as there 
is against the hatches, supposing the land to be full to the surface.” 

We do not find any intimation that there is any error in 
the view advanced by the learned gentleman quoted ; and 
if there is none, we have an explanation of the faculty 
which water seems to have, of finding its way into drain¬ 
pipes. Yet, we feel bound to confess, that, aside from 
authority, we should have supposed that the pressure 
due to a column of pure water, would be essentially les¬ 
sened, by the interposition of solid matter between its 
particles. 


EFFECT OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS. 


333 


CHAPTER XX. 

EFFECT OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS AND RIYERS. 

Drainage Hastens the Supply to the Streams, and thus Creates Freshets.— 
Effect of Drainage on Meadows below; on Water Privileges.—Conflict 
of Manufacturing and Agricultural Interests.—English Opinions and 
Facts.—Uses of Drainage Water.—Irrigation.—Drainage Water for Stock. 
—How used by Mr. Mechi. 

The effect of drainage upon streams and rivers, lias, 
perhaps, little to interest merely practical men, in this 
country, at present; hut the time will soon arrive, when 
mill-owners and land owners will be compelled to inves¬ 
tigate the subject. Men unaccustomed to minute inves¬ 
tigation, are slow to appreciate the great effects jwoduced 
by apparently small causes ; and it may seem to many, 
that the operations of drainage for agriculture, are too 
insignificant in their details, perceptibly to affect the flow 
of mill-streams and rivers. A moment’s thought will 
convince the most skeptical, that the thorough-drainage 
of the wet lands, even of a Xew England township, must 
produce sensible effects upon the streams which convey 
its surplus water toward the sea. 

In making investigations to ascertain what quantity of 
water may be relied upon to supply a reservoir, -whether 
natural or artificial, for the use of a town or city, a survey 
is first taken of the district of territory which naturally is 
drained into the reservoir, and thus the number of square 
miles of surface is ascertained. Then the rain-tables are 
consulted, and the fall of rain upon the surveyed district 


334 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


is computed. The ascertained proportion of rain-fall, 
which usually goes off by evaporation, is then deducted, 
which leaves with sufficient accuracy, the amount of water 
which flows both upon the surface, and through the soil, 
to the reservoir. With proper deductions for waste by 
freshets, when the water will overflow the reservoir, and 
for other known losses, a reliable estimate is readily made, 
in advance, of the quantity of water supplied to the 
reservoir. 

Now, these reservoirs Nature has placed in all our 
valleys, in the form of lakes and ponds, and the drainage 
into them is by natural springs and streams; and the 
annual amount of the water thus naturally flowing into 
them may be readily computed, if the area within their 
head-waters be known. If the earth’s surface were, like 
iron, impervious to water, the rain-water would come in 
torrents down the hill-sides, and along the gentle decli¬ 
vities, into the streams, creating freshets and inundations 
in a few hours. But instead of that, the soft showers fall, 
often on the open, thirsty soil, and so are gradually 
absorbed. A part of the rain-water is there held, until it 
returns by evaporation, to the clouds, while a part slowly 
percolates downward, finding its way into swamps and 
springy plains, and finally, after days or weeks of wander¬ 
ing, slowly, but surely, finds its outlet in the stream or 
pond. 

If now, this surplus of water, this part which cannot be 
evaporated, and must therefore, sooner or later, enter the 
stream or pond, be, by artificial channels, carried directly 
to its destination, without the delay of filtration through 
swamps and clay-banks ; the effect of rain to raise the 
streams and ponds, must be more sudden and immediate. 
Agricultural drains furnish those artificial channels. The 
flat and mossy swamp, which before retained the water 
until the Midsummer drought, and then slowly parted 


EFFECT OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS. 


335 


with it, by evaporation or gradual filtration, now, by 
thorough-drainage, in two or three days at most, sends all 
its surplus water onward to the natural stream. The stag¬ 
nant clay-beds, which formerly, by slow degrees, allowed 
the water to filter through them to the wayside ditch, 
and then to the river, now, by drainage, contribute their 
proportion, in a few hours, to swell the stream. Thus, 
evaporation is lessened, and the amount of water which 
enters the natural channels largely increased ; and, what 
is of more importance, the water which flows from the 
land is sent at once, after its fall from the heavens, into 
the streams. This produces upon the mill-streams a two¬ 
fold effect; first, to raise sudden freshets to overflow the 
dams, and sweep away the mills ; and, secondly, to dry 
up their supply in dry seasons, and to diminish their 
water-power. 

Upon the low meadows which border the streams, the 
effects of the drainage of lands above them are various, 
according to their position. In many cases, it must sub¬ 
ject them to inundation by Summer freshets, and must 
require for their protection, catch-waters and embank¬ 
ments, and large facilities for drainage. 

The effect of drainage upon “ water privileges,” must 
inevitably be, to lessen their value, by giving them a 
sudden surplus, followed by drought, instead of a regular 
supply of water. Water-power companies and mill- 
owners are never careless of their interests. Through the 
patriotic desire to foster home-manufactures, our State le¬ 
gislatures have granted many peculiar privileges to manu¬ 
facturing corporations. Indeed, all the streams and rivers 
of Hew England are chained to labor at their wheels. 

Agriculture has thus far taken care of herself, but is 
destined soon to come in collision with the chartered 
privileges of manufactures. Many questions, touching 
the right of land-owners to change the natural flow of the 


336 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


water, to the injury of mill-owners; many questions 
touching the right of mill-owners to obstruct the natural 
course of streams, to the injury of the farmer, will in¬ 
evitably arise in our Courts. Slowly, and step by step, 
must the lesser interest of manufactures, recede before the 
advance of the great fundamental interest of agriculture, 
until, in process of time, steam, or some yet undiscovered 
giant power, shall put its hand to the great wheel of the 
factory and the mill, and the pent-up waters shall subside 
to their natural banks. 

That these are not mere speculations of our own, may 
be seen from extracts which will be given from answers 
returned by distinguished observers of these matters in 
England and Scotland, to a question proposed to them as 
to the actual effects produced by extensive drainage. 
Some diversity of opinion is observable in the different 
replies, which were made, independently in writing, and 
so are more valuable. 

Mr. Smith .— c: During dry periods, more particularly in Summer, the 
water in the streams is greatly lessened by thorough-draining; for 
there is so great a mass of comparatively dry and absorbent soil to 
receive the rain, that Summer showers, unless very heavy and contin¬ 
uous, will be entirely absorbed.” 

Mr. Parhes .—“ The intention and effect of a complete and system¬ 
atic under-drainage is the liberation of the water of rain more quickly 
from the land than if it were not drained; and therefore the natural 
vents, or rivers, very generally require enlargement or deepening, in 
order to pass off the drainage water in sufficiently quick time, and so 
as to avoid flooding lower lands. 

11 The sluggish rivers' of the midland and southern counties of Eng¬ 
land especially, oppose great obstacles to land-drainage, being usually 
full to the banks, or nearly so, and converted into a series of ponds, by 
mill-dams erected at a few miles distance below each other; so that, 
frequently, no effectual drainage of the richest alluvial soil composing 
the meadows, can be made, without forming embankments, or by pump¬ 
ing, or by resort to other artificial and expensive means. 

“ The greater number of the corn and other water-mills throughout 
England ought to be demolished, for the advantage of agriculture, and 


EFFECT OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS. 


337 


steam-power should to be provided for the millers. I believe that such 
an arrangement would, in most cases, prove to be economical both to 
the landholder and the miller. 

c ‘ Every old authority, and all modern writers on land drainage in 
England, have condemned water-mills and mill-dams ; and if all the 
rivers of England were surveyed from the sea to their source, the mills 
upon them valued, the extent of land injured or benefitted by such 
mill-dams ascertained, and the whole question of advantage or injury 
done to the land-owner appreciated and appraised, I have little doubt 
but that the injury done, would be found so greatly to exceed the rental 
of the mills, deduction being made of the cost of maintaining them, that 
it would be a measure of national economy, to buy up the mills, and 
give the millers steam-power.” 

Mr. Spooner .—“ The effect which extensive drainage produces on the 
main water-courses of districts, is that of increasing the height of their 
rise at flood times, and rendering the flow and subsidence more rapid 
than before. I have repeatedly heard the River Tweed adduced as a 
striking instance of this fact, and that the change has taken place within 
the observation of the present generation.” 

Mr. Maccaw .—“ It has been observed that, after extensive surface- 
drainage on the sheepwalks in the higher parts of the country, and 
when the lower lands were enclosed by ditches, and partially drained 
for the purposes of cultivation, all rivers flowing therefrom, rise more 
rapidly after heavy rains or falls of snow, and discharge their surplus 
waters more quickly, than under former circumstances.” 

Mr. Beattie .—“ It renders them more speedily flooded, and to a 
greater height, and they fall sooner. Rivers are lower in Summer and 
higher in Winter.” 

Mr. Nielson .—“ The immediate effect of the drainage of higher lands 
has often been to inundate the lower levels.” 

In a prize essay of John Algernon Clarke, speaking of 
the effect of drainage along the course of the River Xene, 
in England, he says : 

;i The upland farms are delivering their drain-water in much larger 
quantities, and more immediately after the downfall, than formerly, and 
swelling to the depth of three to six feet over the 20,000 acres of open 
ground, which form one vast reservoir for it above and below Peterborough. 
The Nene used to overflow its banks, to the extreme height, about the 
third day after rain; the floods now reach the same height in about 
half that time. Twelve hours’ rain will generally cause an overflow 
of the land, which all lies unembanked from the stream ; and where it 
15 



338 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


is already saturated, this takes place in six or even in two hours. 
Such a quick rise will cause one body of flood-water to extend for 
forty or fifty miles in succession, with a width varying from a quar¬ 
ter of a mile to a mile; but it stays sometimes for six weeks, or even 
two months, upon the ground. And those floods come down with an 
alarming power and velocity—bridges which have stood for a century 
are washed away, and districts where floods were previously unknown 
have became liable to their sudden periodical inundations. The land 
being wholly in meadow, suffers very heavily from the destruction of its 
hay. So sudden are the inundations, that it frequently happens that 
hay made in the day has, in the night been found swimming and gone. 
A public-house sign at Wansford commemorates the locally-famed cir¬ 
cumstance of a man who, having fallen asleep on a hay-cock, was 
carried down the stream by a sudden flood : awakening just under the 
bridge of that town, and being informed where he was, he demanded, 
in astonishment, if this were ‘ Wansford in England. 5 ” 

The fact that the floods in that neighborhood now reach 
their height in half their former time, in consequence of 
the drainage of the “upland farms,” is very significant. 

Mr. Denton thus speaks upon the same point, though 
his immediate subject was that of compulsory outfalls. 

“ Although the quantity of land drained was small, in comparison to 
that which remained to be drained, the water which was discharged by 
the drainage already effected found its way so rapidly to the outfalls, 
that the consequences were becoming more and more injurious every 
day. The millers were now suffering from two causes. At times of 
excess, after a considerable fall of rain, and when the miller was injuri¬ 
ously overloaded, the excess was increased by the rapidity with which 
the under-drains discharged themselves ; and as the quantity of water 
thus discharged, must necessarily lessen the subsequent supply, the 
period of drought was advanced in a corresponding degree. As the 
millers already saw this, and were anticipating increasing losses, they 
would join in finding a substitute for water-power upon fair terms . 55 

It is not supposed, that any considerable practical effects 
of drainage, upon the streams of this country, have been 
observed. A treatise, however, upon the general subject 
of Drainage, which should omit a point like this, which 
must, before many years, attract serious attention, would 
be quite incomplete. Whether the effect of a system of 


EFFECT OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS. 


339 


thorough-drainage make for or against the interest of mill 
and meadow owners on the lower parts of streams, should 
have no influence over those who design only to present 
the truth, in all its varied aspects. 

As some compensation for the evils which may fall 
upon lands at a lower level, by drainage of uplands, it may 
be interesting to notice briefly in this place, some of the 
uses to which drainage-water has been applied, for the 
advantage of lower lands. In many cases, in Great 
Britain, the water of drainage has been preserved in re¬ 
servoirs, or artificial ponds, and applied for the irrigation 
of water meadows; and as is suggested by Lieut. Maury, 
in a letter quoted in our introductory chapter, the same 
may, in many localities, be done in this country, and thus 
our crops of grass be often tripled, on our low meadows. 
In many cases, water from deep drains, will furnish the 
most convenient supply for barn yards and pastures. It 
is usually sufficiently pure and cool in Summer, and is 
preferred by cattle to the water of running streams. 

On Mr. Mechi’s farm at Tiptree Hall, in England, we 
observed a large cistern, in which all the manure neces¬ 
sary for the highest culture of 170 acres of land, is liqui¬ 
fied, and from which it is pumped out by a steam engine, 
over the farm. All the water, which supplies the cistern, 
is collected from tile drains on the farm, where there had 
before been no running water. 


340 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER XXI. 

LEGISLATION-DRAINAGE COMPANIES. 

England protects her Farmers.—Meadows ruined by Corporation dams.— 
Old Mills often Nuisances.—Factory Reservoirs.—Flowage extends above 
level of Dam.—Rye and Derwent Drainage.—Give Steam for Water-Power. 
—Right to Drain through land of others.—Right to natural flow of Water. 
—Laws of Mass.—Right to Flow; w T hy not to Drain ?—Land-drainage 
Companies in England.—Lincolnshire Fens.—Government Loans for 
Drainage. 

Nothing more clearly shows the universal interest and confidence of 
the people of Great Britian. in the operation of land-drainage, than the 
acts of Parliament in relation to the subject. The conservatism of 
England, in the view of an American, is striking. She never takes a 
step till she is sure she is right. Justly proud of her position among 
the nations, she deems change an unsafe experiment, and what has 
been, much safer than what might be. Vested rights are sacred in 
England, and especially rights in lands, which are emphatically real 
estate there. 

Such are the sentiments of the people, and such the sentiments of 
their representatives and exponents, the Lords and Commons. 

Yet England has been so impressed with the importance of improving 
the condition of the people, of increasing the wealth of the nation, of 
enriching both tenant and landlord, by draining the land, that the his¬ 
tory of her legislation, in aid of such operations, affords a lesson of 
progress even to fast Young America. Powers have been granted, by 
which encumbered estates may be charged with the expenses of drain¬ 
age, so that remainder-men and reversioners, without their consent, 
shall be compelled to contribute to present improvements; so that care¬ 
less or obstinate adjacent proprietors shall be compelled to keep open 
their ditches for outfalls to their neighbor’s drains ) so that mill-dams, 
and other obstructions to the natural flow of the water, may be removed 
for the benefit of agriculture; and, finally, the Government has itself 


LEGISLATION. 


341 


furnished funds, "by way of loans, of millions of pounds, in aid of im¬ 
provements of this character. 

In America, where private individual right is usually compelled to 
yield to the good of the whole, and where selfishness and obstinacy do 
not long stand in the pathway of progress, obstructing manifest im¬ 
provement in the condition of the people; we are yet far behind Eng¬ 
land in legal facilities for promoting the improvement of land culture. 
This is because the attention of the public has not been particularly 
called to the subject. 

Manufacturing corporations are created by special acts of legislation. 
In many States, rights to flow, and ruin, by inundation, most valuable 
lands along the course of rivers, and by the banks of ponds and lakes, 
to aid the water-power of mills, are granted to companies, and the 
land-owner is compelled to part with his meadows for such compensa¬ 
tion as a committee or jury shall assess. 

In almost every town in New England there are hundreds, and 
often thousands, of acres of lands, that might be most productive to the 
farmer; overflowed half the year with water, to drive some old saw-mill, 
or grist-mill, or cotton-mill, which has not made a dividend, or paid 
expenses, for a quarter of a century. The whole water-power, which, 
perhaps, ruins for cultivation a thousand acres of fertile land, and 
divides and breaks up farms, by creating little creeks and swamps 
throughout all the neighboring valleys, is not worth, and would not be 
assessed, by impartial men, at one thousand dollars. Yet, though there 
is power to take the farmer’s land for the benefit of manufacturers, there 
is no power to take down the company’s dam for the benefit of agricul¬ 
ture. An old saw-mill, which can only run a few days in a Spring 
freshet, often swamps a half-township of land, because somebody’s 
great-grandfather had a prescriptive right to flow, when lands were of 
no value, and saw-mills were a public blessing. 

There are numerous cases, within our own knowledge, where the very 
land overflowed and ruined by some incorporated company, would, if 
allowed to produce its natural growth of timber and wood, furnish ten 
times the fuel necessary to supply steam-engines, to propel the machinery 
carried by the water-power. 

Not satisfied with obstructing the streams in their course, the larger 
companies are, of late, making use of the interior lakes, fifty or a hun¬ 
dred miles inland, as reservoirs, to keep back water for the use of the 
mills in the summer droughts. Thus are thousands of acres of land 
drowned, and rendered worse than useless; for the water is kept up till 
Midsummer, and drawn off when a dog-day climate is just ready to 


342 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


convert the rich and slimy sediment of the pond into pestilential vapors. 
These waters, too, controlled by the mill-owners, are thus let down in 
floods, in Midsummer, to overflow the meadows and corn-fields of the 
farmer, or the intervals and bottom-lands below. 

Now, while we would never advocate any attack upon the rights of 
mill-owners, or ask them to sacrifice their interests to those of agricul¬ 
ture, it surely is proper to call attention to the injury which the produc¬ 
tive capacity of the soil is suffering, by the flooding of our best tracts, 
in sections of country where land is most valuable. Could not mill- 
owners, in many instances, adopt steam instead of water-power, and 
becoming land -draining companies, instead of land -drowning companies; 
at least, let Nature have free course with her gently-flowing rivers, and 
allow the promise to be fulfilled, that the earth shall be no more cursed 
with a flood. 

We would ask for the land-owner, simply equality of rights with the 
mill-owner. If a legislature may grant the right to flow lands, against 
the will of the owner, to promote manufactures, the same legislature 
may surely grant the right, upon proper occasion, to remove dams, and 
other obstructions to our streams, to promote agriculture. The rights 
of mill-owners are no more sacred than those of land-owners ; and the 
interests of manufactures are, surely, no more important than those 
of agriculture. 

We would not advocate much interference with private rights. In 
some of the States, no special privileges have been conferred upon 
water-power companies. They have been left to procure their rights 
of flowage, by private contract w r ith the land-owners ; and in such States, 
probably, the legislatures would be as slow to interfere with rights of 
flowage, as with other rights. Yet, there are cases where, for the pre¬ 
servation of the health of the community, and for the general conve¬ 
nience, governments have everywhere exercised the power of interfer¬ 
ing with private property, and limiting the control of the owners. To 
preserve the public health, we abate as nuisances, by process of law, 
slaughter-houses, and other establishments offensive to health and com¬ 
fort, and we provide, by compulsory assessments upon land-owners, for 
sewerage, for side-walks, and the like, in our cities. 

Everywhere, for the public good, we take private property for high¬ 
ways, upon just compensation, and the property of corporations is thus 
taken, like that of individuals. 

Again, we compel adjacent owners to fence their lands, and maintain 
their proportion of division fences of the legal height, and we elect 
fence viewers, with power to adjust equitably, the expenses of such 


LEGISLATION. 


343 


fences. We assess bachelors and maidens, in most States, for the con¬ 
struction of schoolhouses, and the education of the children of others, 
and, in various ways, compel each member of society to contribute to the 
common welfare. 

How far it may be competent, for a State legislature to provide for, or 
assist in, the drainage of extensive and unhealthy marshes • or how 
far individual owners should be compelled to contribute to a common 
improvement of their lands ] or how far, and in what cases, one land- 
owner should be authorized to enter upon land of another, to secure or 
maintain the best use of his own land—these are questions which it is 
unnecessary for us to attempt to determine. It is well that they should 
be suggested, because they will, at no distant day, engage much atten¬ 
tion. It is well, too, that the steps which conservative England has 
thought it proper to take in this direction, should be understood, that 
we may the better determine whether any, and if any, what course our 
States may safely take, to aid the great and leading interest of our 
country. 

The swamps and stagnant meadows along our small streams and our 
rivers, which are taken from the farmer, by flowage, for the benefit of 
mills, are often, in New England, the most fertile part of the townships— 
equal to the bottom lands of the West : and they are right by the doors 
of young men, who leave their homes with regret, because the rich 
land of far-off new States offers temptations, which their native soil can¬ 
not present. 

It is certainly of great importance to the old States, to inquire into 
these matters, and set proper bounds to the use of streams for water- 
powers. The associated wealth and influence of manufacturers, is 
always more powerful than the individual efforts of the land-owners. 

Reservoirs are always growing larger, and dams continually grow 
higher and tighter. The water, by little and little, creeps insidiously 
on to, and into, the meadows far above the obstruction, and the land- 
owner must often elect between submission to this aggression, and a 
tedious law-suit with a powerful adversary. The evil of obstructions 
to streams and rivers, is by no means limited to the land visibly flowed, 
nor to land at the level of the dam. Running water is never level, or 
it could not flow : and in crooked streams, which flow through meadows, 
obstructed by grass and bushes, the water raised by a dam, often stands 
many feet higher, at a mile or two back, than at the dam. It is ex¬ 
tremely difficult to set limits to the effect of such a flowage. Water is 
flowed into the subsoil, or rather is prevented from running out; the 
natural drainage of the country is prevented; and land which might well 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


344 

be drained artificially, were the stream not obstructed, is found to lie 
so near the level, as to be deprived of the requisite tall by back water, 
or the sluggish current occasioned by the dam. 

These obstructions to drainage have become subjects of much atten¬ 
tion, and of legislative intervention in various forms in England, and 
some of the facts elicited in their investigations are very instructive. 

In a discussion before the Society of Arts, in 1855, in which many 
gentlemen, experienced in drainage, took a part, this subject of obstruc¬ 
tion by mill-dams came up. 

Mr. G. Donaldson said he had been much engaged in works of land- 
drainage, and that, in many instances, great difficulties were expe¬ 
rienced in obtaining outfalls, owing to the water rights, on the course of 
rivers for mill-power, &c. 

Mr. R. Grantham spoke of the necessity of further legislation, u so as 
to give power to lower bridges and culverts, under public roads, and 
straighten and deepen rivers and streams.” But, he said, authority was 
wanting, above all, u for the removal of mills, dams, and other obstruc¬ 
tions in rivers, which, in many cases, did incalculable injury, many 
times exceeding the value of the mills, by keeping up the level of 
rivers, and rendering it totally impossible to drain the adjoining 
lands.” 

Mr. R. F. Davis said, c: Jf they were to go into the midland districts, 
they would see great injury done, from damming the water for mills.” 

In Scotland, the same difficulty has arisen. “ In many parts of this 
country,” says a Scottish writer, u small lochs (lakes) and dams are 
kept up, for the sake of mills, under old tenures, which, if drained, the 
land gained by that operation, would, in many instances, be worth ten 
times the rent of such mills.” 

In the case of the Rye and Derwent Drainage, an account of 
which is found in the 14th Yol. of the Journal of the Royal Agri¬ 
cultural Society, a plan of compensation was adopted, where it became 
necessary to remove dams and other obstructions, which is worthy 

of attention. The Commissioners under the Act of 1846. removed 

/ 

the fn ill-wheels, and substituted steam-engines corresponding to the 
power actually used by the mills, compensating, also, the proprietors 
for inconvenience, and the future additional expensiveness of the new 
power. 

“ The claims of a short canal navigation, two fisheries, and tenants’ 
damages through derangement of business during the alterations, were 
disposed of without much outlay ; and the pecuniary advantages of the 
work are apparent from the fact, that a single flood, such as frequently 


LEGISLATION. 


345 


overflowed the land, has been known to do more damage, if fairly 
valued in money, than the whole sum expended under the act.” 

Under this act, it became necessary for the Commissioners to esti¬ 
mate the comparative cost of steam and water-power, in order to carry 
out their idea of giving to the mill-owners a steam-power equivalent 
to their water-power. 

“ As the greater part of their water-power was employed on corn 
and flour-mills, upon these the calculations were chiefly based. It 
was generally admitted to be very near the truth, that to turn a pair 
of flour-mill stones properly, requires a power equal to that of two- 
and-a-half horses, or on an average, twenty horses’ power, to turn and 
work a mill of eight-pairs of stones, and that the total cost of a twenty- 
horse steam-engine, with all its appliances, would be $5,000, or $250 
per horse power.” 

Calculations for the maintenance of the steam-power are also given; 
but this depends so much on local circumstances, that English esti¬ 
mates would be of little value to us. 

The arrangements in this case with the mill-owners, were made by 
contract, and not by force of any arbitrary power, and the success of 
the enterprise, in the drainage of the lands, the prevention of damage 
by floods, especially in hay and harvest-time, and in the improvement 
of the health of vegetation, as well as of man and animals, is said to be 
strikingly manifest. 

This act provides for a u water-bailiff,” whose duty it is to inspect 
the rivers, streams, water-courses, &c., and enforce the due mainte¬ 
nance of the banks, and the uninterrupted discharge of the waters at all 
times. 

COMPULSORY OUTFALLS. 

It often happens, especially in New England, where farms are small, 
and the country is broken, that an owner of valuable lands overcharged 
with water, perhaps a swamp or low meadow, or perhaps a field of 
upland, lying nearly level, desires to drain his tract, but cannot find 
sufficient fall, without going upon the land of owners below. These 
adjacent owners may not appreciate the advantages of drainage; or 
their lands may not require it; or, what is not unusual, they may from 
various motives, good and evil, refuse to allow their lands to be meddled 
with. 

Now, without desiring to be understood as speaking judicially, we 
know of no authority of law by which a land-owner may enter upon 
the territory of his neighbor for the purpose of draining his own land, 
and perhaps no such power should ever be conferred. All owners upon 
streams, great and small, have however, the right to the natural flow 


346 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


of the water, both above and below. Their neighbors below cannot 
obstruct a stream so as to flow back the water upon, or into, the land 
above; and where artificial water-courses, as ditches and drains have 
long been opened, the presumption would be that all persons benefitted 
by them, have the right to have them kept open. 

Parliament is held to be omnipotent, and in the act of 1847, known 
as Lord Lincoln’s Act, its power is well illustrated, as is also the deter¬ 
mination of the British nation that no trifling impediments shall hinder 
the progress of the great work of draining lands for agriculture. The 
act, in effect, authorizes any person interested in draining his lands, to 
clear a passage through all obstructions, wherever it would be worth 
the expense of works and compensation. 

Its general provisions may be found in the 15th Vol. of the Journal 
of the Royal Agricultural Society. 

It is not the province of the author, to decide what may properly be 
done within the authority of different States, in aid of public or private 
drainage enterprises. The State Legislatures are not, like Parliament, 
omnipotent. They are limited by their written constitutions. Perhaps 
no better criterion of power, with respect to compelling contribution, by 
persons benefitted. to the cost of drainage, and with interfering with 
individual rights, for public or private advantage, can be found, than 
the exercise of power in the cases of fences and of flowage. 

If we may lawfully compel a person to fence his land, to exclude the 
cattle of other persons, or, if he neglect to fence, subject him to their 
depredations, without indemnity, as is done in many States; or if we 
may compel him to contribute to the erection of division fences, of a 
given height, though he has no animal in the world to be shut in or out 
of his field, there would seem to be equal reason, in compelling him to 
dig half a division ditch for the benefit of himself and neighbor. 

If, again, as we have already hinted, the Legislature may authorize 
a corporation to flow and inundate the land of an unwilling citizen, to 
raise a water-power for a cotton-mill, it must be a nice discrimination 
of powers, that prohibits the same Legislature from authorizing the 
entry into lands of a protesting mill-owner, or of an unknown or cross- 
grained proprietor, to open an outlet for a valuable, health-giving sys¬ 
tem of drainage. 

In the valuable treatise of Dr. Warder, of Cincinnati, recently pub¬ 
lished in New York, upon Hedges and Evergreens, an abstract is given 
of the statutes of most of our States, upon the subject of fences, and 
wc know of no other book, in which so good an idea of the legislation 
on this subject, can be so readily obtained. 


LEGISLATION. 


347 


By the statutes of Massachusetts, nny person may erect and maintain 
a water-mill, and dam to raise water for working it, upon and across 
any stream that is not navigable, provided he does not interfere with 
existing mills. Any person whose land is overflowed, may, on complaint, 
have a trial and a verdict of a jury; which may fix the height of the 
dam, decide whether it shall be left open any part of the year, and fix 
compensation, either annual or in gross, for the injury. All other reme¬ 
dies for such fiowage are taken away, and thus the land of the owner 
may be converted into a mill-pond against his consent. 

We find nothing in the Massachusetts statutes which gives to land- 
owners, desirous of improving their wet lands, any power to interfere 
in any way with the rights of mill-owners, for the drainage of lands. 
The statutes of the Commonwealth, however, make liberal and strin¬ 
gent provisions, for compelling unwilling owners to contribute to the 
drainage of wet lands. 

For the convenience of those who may be desirous of procuring legis¬ 
lation on this subject, we will give a brief abstract of the leading 
statute of Massachusetts regulating this matter. It may be found in 
Chapter 115 of the Revised Statutes, of 1836. The first Section ex¬ 
plains the general object. 

“When any meadow, swamp, marsh, beach, or other low land,- shall 
be held by several proprietors, and it shall be necessary or useful to 
drain or flow the same, or to remove obstructions in rivers or streams 
leading therefrom, such improvements may be effected, under the direc¬ 
tion of Commissioners, in the manner provided in this chapter.” 

The statute provides that the proprietors, or a greater part of them 
in interest, may apply, by petition, to the Court of Common Pleas, 
setting forth the proposed improvements, and for notice to the proprie¬ 
tors who do not join in the petition, and for a hearing. The court may 
then appoint three, five, or seven commissioners to cause the improve¬ 
ments to be effected. The commissioners are authorized to “cause 
dams or dikes to be erected on the premises, at such places, and in such 
manner as they shall direct; and may order the land to be flowed 
thereby, for such periods of each year as they shall think most benefi¬ 
cial, and also cause ditches to be opened on the premises, and obstruc¬ 
tions in any rivers or streams leading therefrom to be removed.” 

Provision is made for assessment of the expenses of the improvements, 
upon all the proprietors, according to the benefit each will derive from it, 
and for the collection of the amount assessed. 

“ When the commissioners shall find it necessary or expedient to 
reduce or raise the waters, for the purpose of obtaining a view of the 
premises, or for the more convenient or expeditious removal of obstruc* 


348 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


tions therein, they may open the flood-gates of any mill, or make other 
needful passages through or round the dam thereof or erect a temporary 
dam on the land of any person, who is not a party to the proceedings, 
and may maintain such dam, or such passages for the water, as long as 
shall be necessary for the purposes aforesaid.” 

Provision is made for previous notice to persons who are not par¬ 
ties, and for compensation to them for injuries occasioned by the inter¬ 
ference, and for appeal to the courts. 

This'statute gives, by no means, the powers necessary to compel 
contribution to all necessary drainage, because, first, it is limited in its 
application to “ meadow, swamp, marsh, beach, or other low land.” 
The word meadow, in New England, is used in its original sense of flat 
and wet land. 'Secondly, the statute seems to give no authority to open 
permanent ditches on the land of others than the owners of such low 
land, although it provides for temporary passages for the purposes of 
“ obtaining a view of the premises, or for the more convenient or expe¬ 
ditious removal of obstructions therein ' 1 '’—the word “therein” referring 
to the “premises” under improvement, so that there is no provision for 
outfalls, under this statute, except through natural streams. 

By a statute of March 28, 1855, the Legislature of Massachusetts 
has exercised a power as extensive as is desirable for all purposes of 
drainage, although the provisions of the act referred to are not, per¬ 
haps, so broad as may be found necessary, in order to open outfalls and 
remove all obstructions to drainage. As this act is believed to be pecu¬ 
liar, we give its substance : 

“ An Act to authorize the making of Roads and Drains in certain 
cases. 

“Sect. 1 . Any town or city, person or persons, company or body 
corporate, having the ownership of low lands, lakes, swamps, quarries, 
mines, or mineral deposits, that, by means of adjacent lands belonging 
to other persons, or occupied as a highway, cannot be approached, 
worked, drained, or used in the ordinary manner without crossing said 
lands or highway, may be authorized to establish roads, drains, ditches, 
tunnels, and railways to said places in the manner herein provided. 

“ Sect. 2. The party desiring to make such improvements shall file 
a petition therefor with the commissioners of the county in which the 
premises are situated, setting forth the names of the persons interested, 
if known to the petitioner, and also, in detail, the nature of the pro¬ 
posed improvement, and the situation of the adjoining lands.” 

Sect. 3 provides for notice to owners and town authorities. 

Sect. 4 provides for a hearing, and laying out the improvement, and 


LEGISLATION. 


349 


assessment of damages upon the respective parties, “ having strict re¬ 
gard to the benefits which they will receive.” 

Sect. 5 provides for repairs by a majority of those benefitted; and 
Sect. 6 for aj peals, as in the case of highways. 

By an act of 1857, this act was so far amended as to authorize the 
application for the desired improvement, to be made to the Selectmen 
of the town, or the Mayor and Aldermen of the city, in case the lands 
over which the improvement is desired are all situated in one town or 
city. 

It is manifest certainly, that the State assumes power sufficient to 
authorize any interference with private property that may be necessary 
for the most extended and thorough drainage operations. The power 
which may compel a man to improve his portion of a swamp, may 
apply as well to his wet hill-sides ■ and the power which may open 
temporary passages through lands or dams, without consent of the 
owner, may keep them open permanently, if expedient. 

LAND DRAINAGE COMPANIES. 

Besides the charters which have at various times, for many centuries, 
been granted to companies, for the drainage of fens and marshes, and 
other lowlands, in modern times, great encouragement has been given 
by the British Government for the drainage and other improvement of 
highlands. Not only have extensive powers been granted to compa¬ 
nies, to proceed with their own means, to effect the objects in view, but 
the Government itself has advanced money, by way of loan, in aid of 
drainage and like improvements. 

By the provisions of two acts of Parliament, no less than $20,000,000 
have been loaned in aid of such improvements. These acts are gene¬ 
rally known as Public Moneys Drainage Acts. There are already 
four chartered companies for the same general objects, doing an immense 
amount of business, on private funds. 

It will be sufficient, perhaps, to state, in general terms, the mode of 
.-operation under these several acts. 

Most lands in England are held under incumbrances of some kind. 
Many are entailed, as it is termed: that is to say, vested for life in 
certain persons, and then to go to others, the tenant for life having no 
power to sell the property. Often, the life estate is owned by one per¬ 
son, and the remainder by a stranger, or remote branch of the family, 
whom the life-tenant has no desire to benefit. In such cases, the tenant, 
or occupant, would be unwilling to make expensive improvements at 
his own cost, which might benefit himself but a few years, and then go 
into other hands. 


350 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


On the other hand, the remainder-man would have no right to meddle 
with the property while the tenant-for-life was in possession \ and it 
would be rare, that all those interested could agree to unite in efforts to 
increase the general value of the estate, by such improvements. 

The great object in view was, then, to devise means, by which such 
estates, suffering for want of systematic, and often expensive, drainage 
operations, might be improved, and the cost of improvement be charged 
on the estate, so as to do no injustice to any party interested. 

The plan finally adopted, is, to allow the tenant or occupant to have 
the improvement made, either by expending his private funds, or by 
borrowing of the Government or the private companies, and having the 
amount expended, made a charge on the land, to be paid, in annual pay¬ 
ments, by the person who shall be in occupation each year. Under 
one of these acts, the term of payment is fixed at 22 years, and under 
a later act, at 50 years. 

Thus, if A own a life-estate in lands, and B the remainder, and the 
estate needs draining, A may take such steps as to have the improve¬ 
ment made, by borrowing the money, and repaying it by yearly pay¬ 
ments, in such sums as will pay the whole expenditure, with interest, 
in twenty-two or fifty years : and if A die before the expiration of the 
term, the succeeding occupants continue the payments until the whole 
is paid. 

A borrows, for instance, SI,000, and expends it in draining the lands. 
It is made a charge, like a mortgage, on the land, to be paid in equal 
annual payments for fifty years. At six per cent., the annual payment 
will be but about $63.33, to pay the whole amount of debt and the 
interest, in fifty years. A pays this sum annually as long as he lives, 
and B then takes possession, and pays the annual installment. 

If the tenant expend his own money, and die before the whole term 
expire, he may leave the unpaid balance as a legacy, or part of his own 
estate, to his heirs. 

The whole proceeding is based upon the idea, that the rent or income 
of the property is sufficiently increased, to make the operation advant-* 
ageous to all parties. It is assumed, that the operation of drainage, 
under one of these statutes, will be effectual to increase the rent of the 
land, to the amount of this annual payment, for at least fifty years. 
The fact, that the British Government, after the most thorough investi¬ 
gation, has thus pronounced the opinion, that drainage works, properly 
conducted, will thus increase the rent of land, and remain in full 
operation a half century at least, affords the best evidence possible, both 
of the utility and the durability of tile drainage. 


DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 


351 


CHAPTEE XXII. 

DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 

Wet Cellars Unhealthful. — Importance of Cellars in New England.—A 
Glance at the Garret, by way of Contrast.—Necessity of Drains.—Sketch 
of an Inundated Cellar. — Tiles best for Drains. — Best Plan of Cellar 
Drain ; Illustration.—Cementing will not do.—Drainage of Barn Cellars.— 
Uses of them.—Actual Drainage of a very Bad Cellar described.—Drains 
Outside and Inside ; Illustration. 

Xo person needs to be informed that it is unhealthful, 
as well as inconvenient, to have water, at any time of the 
year, in the cellar. In Xew England, the cellar is an 
essential part of the house. All sorts of vegetables, roots, 
and fruit, that can be injured by frost, are stored in cellars; 
and milk, and wine, and cider, and a thousand “ vessels of 
honor,” like tubs and buckets, churns and washing- 
machines, that are liable to injury from heat or cold, or 
other vicissitude of climate, find a safe retreat in the 
cellar. Excepting the garret, which is, as Ariosto repre¬ 
sents the moon to be, the receptacle of all things useless 
on earth, the cellar is the greatest “ curiosity shop” of the 
establishment. 

The poet finds in the moon, 

“ Whate’cr was wasted in our earthly state, 

Here safely treasured—each neglected good, ' 

Time squandered, and occasion ill-bestowed ; 

There sparkling chains he found, and knots of gold, 

The specious ties that ill-paired lovers hold ; 

Each toil, each loss, each chance that men sustain, 

Save Folly, which alone pervades them all, 

For Folly never quits this earthly ball. 


352 


FA KM DK AIN AGE. 


In the garret, are the old spinning wheel, the clock reel, 
the linen wheel with its distaff, your grandfather’s knap¬ 
sack and cartridge-box and Continental coat, your great- 
aunt’s Leghorn bonnet and side-saddle, or pillion, great 
files of the village newspapers—the “ Morning Cry ” and 
“ Midnight Yell ,” besides worn out trunks and boxes 
without number. In the cellar, are the substantial— 
barrels of beef, and pork, and apples, “ taters” and turnips; 
in short, the Winter stores of the family. 

Many, perhaps most, of the cellars in Hew England are 
in some way drained, usually by a stone culvert, laid a 
little lower than the bottom of the cellar, into which the 
water is conducted, in the Spring, when it bursts through 
the walls, or rises at the bottom, by means of little ditches 
scooped out in the surface. 

In some districts, people seem to have little idea of 
drains, even for cellars; and on flat land, endeavor to set 
their houses high enough to have their cellars above 
ground. This, besides being extremely inconvenient for 
passage out of, and into the house, often fails to make a 
dry cellar, for the water from the roof runs in, and causes 
a flood. And such accidents, as they are mildly termed 
by the improvident builders, often occur by the failure of 
drains imperfectly laid. 

Ho child, who ever saw a cellar afloat, during one of 
these inundations, will ever outgrow the impression. You 
stand on the cellar stairs, and below is a dark waste of 
waters, of illimitable extent. By the dim glimmer of the 
dip-candle, a scene is presented which furnishes a toler¬ 
able picture of “ chaos and old night,” but defies all de¬ 
scription. Empty dry casks, with cider barrels, wash- 
tubs, and boxes, ride triumphantly on the surface, while 
half filled vinegar and molasses kegs, like water-logged 
ships, roll heavily below. Broken boards and planks, old 
hoops, and staves, and barrel heads innumerable, are buoy- 


DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 


353 


ant with this change of the elements; while floating turnips 
and apples, with, here and there, a brilliant cabbage head, 
gleam in this subterranean firmament, like twinkling 
stars, dimmed by the effulgence of the moon at her full. 
Magnificent among the lesser vessels of the fleet, “ like 
some tall admiral,” rides the enormous “ mash-tub,” while 
the astonished rats and mice are splashing about at its 
base in the dark waters, like sailors just washed, at mid¬ 
night, from the deck, by a heavy sea. 

The lookers-on are filled with various emotions. The 
farmer sees his thousand bushels of potatos submerged, 
and devoted to speedy decay ; the good wife mourns for 
her diluted pickles, and apple sauce, and her drowned 
firkins of butter; while the boys are anxious to embark 
on a raft or in the tubs, on an excursion of pleasure and 
discovery. 

To avoid such scenes as the above, everv cellar which 
is not upon a dry sandbank, should be provided with a 
drain of some kind, which will be at all times, secure. 

For a main drain from the cellar, four or six-inch tiles 
are abundantly sufficient, and where they can be reason¬ 
ably obtained, much cheaper than stone. The expense of 
excavation, of hauling stone, and of laying them, will 
make the expense of a stone drain far exceed that of a 
tile drain, with tiles at fair prices. The tiles, if well 
secured at the inlet and outlet of the drain, will entirely 
exclude rats and mice, which always infest stone drains to 
cellars. Care must be taken, if the water is conducted 
on the surface of the cellar into the drain, that nothing 
but pure water be admitted. This may be effected by a 
fine strainer of wire or plate ; or by a cess-pool, which is 
better, because it will also prevent any draft of air through 
the drain. 

The very best method of draining a cellar is that adopted 
by the writer, on his own premises. It is, in fact, a mere 


354 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


application of the ordinary principles of field drainage. 
The cellar was dug in sand, which rests on clay, a foot or 
two below the usual water-line in winter, and a drain of 
chestnut plank laid from the cellar to low land, some 20 
rods off. Tiles were not then in use in the neighborhood, 
and were not thought of, when the house was built. 

In the Spring, water came up in the bottom of the cel¬ 
lar, and ran out in little hollows made for the purpose, on 
the surface. 

Hot liking this inconvenient wetness, we next dug 
trenches a few inches deep, put boards at the sides to ex¬ 
clude the sand, and packed the trenches with small stones. 
This operated better, but the mice found pleasant accom¬ 
modations among the stones, and sand got in and choked 
the passage. Lastly, tiles came to our relief, and a perfect 
preventive of all inconvenient moisture was found, by 
adopting the following plan : 

The drain from the cellar was taken up, and relaid 18 
inches below the cellar-bottom, at the outlet. Then a 
trench was cut in the cellar-bottom, two feet from the 
wall, a foot deep at the farthest corner from the outlet, 
and deepening towards it, round the whole cellar, follow¬ 
ing the course of the walls. In this trench, two-inch pipe 
tiles were laid, and carefully covered with tan-bark, and 
the trenches filled with the earth. This tile drain was 
connected with the outlet drain 18 inches under ground, 
and the earth levelled over the whole. This was done two 
years ago, and no drop of water has ever been visible in 
the cellar since it was completed. The water is caught 
by the drain before it rises to the surface, and conducted 
away. 

Yegetables of all kinds are now laid in heaps on the 
cellar-bottom, which is just damp enough to pack solid, 
and preserves vegetables better, in a dry cellar, than casks, 
or bins with floors. 


DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 


. 355 


A little sketch of this mode of draining cellars, repre¬ 
senting the celler referred to, will, perhaps, present the 
matter more clearly. 



Fig. 99 —Drainage of Cellar. 


Many persons have attempted to exclude water from their 
cellars by cementing them on the bottom, and part way up 
on the sides. This might succeed, if the cellar wall were 
laid very close, and in cement, and a heavy coating of ce¬ 
ment applied to the bottom. A moment’s attention to the 
subject will show that it is not likely to succeed, as expe¬ 
rience shows that it seldom, if ever, does. 

The water which enters cellars, frequently runs from 




























356 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the surface behind the cellar wall, where rats always keep 
open passages, and fills the ground and these passages; 
especially when the earth is frozen, to the surface, thus 
giving a column of water behind the wall six or eight 
feet in height. The pressure of water is always in 
proportion to its height or head, without reference to 
the extent of surface. The pressure, then, of the water 
against the cemented wall, would be equal to the pres¬ 
sure of a full mill-pond against its perpendicular dam 
of six or eight feet height! No sane man would think of 
tightening a dam, with seven feet head of water, by plas¬ 
tering a little cement on the down-stream side of it, which 
might as well be done, as to exclude water from a cellar 
by the process, and under the conditions, stated. 

DRAINAGE OF BARN CELLARS. 

Most barns in New England are constructed with good 
substantial cellars, from six to nine feet deep, with solid 
walls of stone. They serve a three-fold purpose ; of keep¬ 
ing manure, thrown down from the cattle and horse stalls 
above; of preserving turnips, mangolds, and other vegeta¬ 
bles for the stock; and of storing carts, wagons, and other 
farm implements. Usually, the cellar is divided by stone, 
brick, or wood partitions, into apartments, devoted to each 
of the purposes named. The cellar for manure should 
not be wet enough to have water flow away from it, nor 
dry enough to have it leach. For the other purposes, a dry 
cellar is desirable. 

Perhaps the details of the drainage of a barn cellar on 
our own premises, may give our views of the best mode 
of drainage, both for a manure cellar, and for a root and 
implement cellar. The barn was built in 1849, on a site 
sloping slightly to the south. In excavating for the 
wall, at about seven feet below the height fixed for 
the sills, we came upon a soft, blue clay, so nearly fluid 


DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 


357 


that a ten-foot pole was easily thrust down out of sight, 
perpendicularly, into it! Here was a dilemma! How 
could a heavy wall and building stand on that found¬ 
ation ? A skillful engineer was consulted, who had seen 
heavy brick blocks built in just such places, and who pro¬ 
nounced this a very simple case to manage. “If,” said 
he, “ the mud cannot get up, the wall resting on it cannot 
settle down.” Upon this idea, by his advice, we laid our 
wall, on thick plank, on the clay, so as to get an even 
bearing, and drove down, against the face of the wall, 
edge to edge, two-inch plank to the depth of about three 
feet, leaving them a foot above the bottom of the wall. 
Against this, we rammed coarse gravel very hard, and left 
the bottom of the cellar one foot above the bottom of the 
wall, so that the weight might counterbalance the pressure 
of the wall and building. The building has been in con¬ 
stant use, and appears not to have settled a single inch. 

The cellar was first used only for manure, and for 
keeping swine. It was quite wet, and grew more and 
more so every year, as the water found passages into it, 
till it was found that its use must be abandoned, or an 
amphibious race of pigs procured. It was known, that the 
most of the water entered at the north corner of the 
building, borne up by the clay which comes to within 
three feet of the natural surface; and, as it would be ruin¬ 
ous to the manure to leach it, by drawing a large quan¬ 
tity of water through it into drains, in the usual mode 
of draining, it was concluded to cut off the water on the 
outside of the building, and before it reached the cellar. 
Accordingly, a drain was started at the river, some twenty 
rods below, and carried up to the barn, and then eight 
feet deep around two sides of it, by the north corner, 
where most water came in. 

We cut through the sand, and four or five feet into the 
clay, and laid one course only of two-inch pipe-tiles at the 


358 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


bottom. As tliis was designed for a catch-water, and not 
merely to take in water at the bottom, in the usual way, we 
filled the trench, after covering the tiles with tan, with 
coarse sand above the level of the clay, and put clay upon 
the top. ¥e believe no water has ever crossed this drain, 
which operates as perfectly as an open ditch, to catch all 
that flows upon it. The manure cellar was then dry 
enough, but the other cellar was wanted for roots and im¬ 
plements, and the water was constantly working up through 
the soft clay bottom, keeping it of the consistency of 
mortar, and making it difficult to haul out the manure, 
and everyway disagreeable. 

One more effort was made to dry this part. A drain 
was opened from the highway, which passes the barn, to 
the south corner; and about two and a half feet below the 
bottom of the cellar, along inside the wall, at about 
three feet distance from it, on two of the sides; and an¬ 
other in the same way, across the middle of the cellar. 
These, laid with two-inch tiles, and filled with gravel, 
were connected together, and led off to the wayside. The 
waste water of two watering places, one in the cellar, and 
auother outside, supplied by an aqueduct, was conducted 
into the tiles, and thus quietly disposed of. The reason 
why the drains are filled with gravel is, that as the soft 
clay, in which the tiles ’were laid, could never have the 
heat of the direct rays of the sun on its surface, there 
might be no cracking of it, sufficient to afford passage for 
the water, and so this was made a catch-water to stop any 
water that might attempt to cross it. 

The work was finished last Autumn, and we have had 
but the experience of a single season with it; but we are 
satisfied that the object is attained. The surface of the 
implement cellar, which before, had been always soft and 
muddy, has ever since been as dry and sol-id as a highway 
in Summer; and the root cellar, which has a cemented 


DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. 


359 


bottom, is as dry as the barn floor. The manure can now 
be teamed out, without leaving a rut, and we are tree 
to confess, that the effect is greater than we had deemed 
possible. 

The following cut will show at a glance, how all the 
drains are laid, the dotted lines representing the tile drains: 



Fig. 100. 


The drain outside the barn, on the right, leads from a 
spring, some two hundred feet off, into the cellar and into 
the yard, and supplies water to the cattle, at the points in¬ 
dicated. The waste water is then conducted into the 
drains, and passes off. 





















360 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


T 


CHAPTER XXIII. 

DRAINAGE OF SWAMPS. 

Vast Extent of Swamp Lands in the United States.—Their Soil.—Sources of 
their Moisture.—How to Drain them.—The Soil Subsides by Draining.— 
Catch-water Drains.—Springs.—Mr. Ruffin’s Drainage in Virginia.—Is 
there Danger of Over-draining? 

In almost, if not quite every State, extensive tracts of 
swamp lands are found, not only unfit, in their natural 
condition, for cultivation, but, in many instances, by rea¬ 
son of obnoxious effluvia, arising from stagnant water, 
dangerous to health. 

Of the vast extent of such lands, some idea may be 
formed, by adverting to the fact, that under the grants by 
Congress, of the public lands given away to the States in 
which they lie, as of no value to the Government and as 
nuisances to their neighborhood, in their natural condition; 
sixty millions of acres, it is estimated, will be included. 

These are only the public lands, and in the new States. 
In every township in Hew England, there are hundreds 
of acres of swamp land, just beginning to be brought 
to the notice of their owners, as of sufficient value to 
authorize the expense of drainage. 

To say that these swamps are the most fertile and the 
most valuable lands in Hew England, is but to repeat 
the assertion of all who have successfully tried the expe¬ 
riment of reclaiming them. 

In their natural state, these swamps are usually covered 
with a heavy growth of timber; but the greater portion 


DRAINAGE OF SWAMPS. 


361 


of them have been partially cleared, and many of them 
are mowed, producing a coarse, wild, and nearly worth¬ 
less grass. 

The soil of these tracts is usually a black mud or peat, 
partly the product of vegetable growth and decay on the 
spot, and partly the deposit of the lighter portion of the 
upland soil, brought down by the washing of showers, 
and by spring freshets. The leaves of the surrounding 
forest, too, are naturally dropped by the Autumn winds 
into the lowest places, and these swamps have received 
them, for ages. Usually, these lands lie in basins among 
the hills, sometimes along the banks of streams and rivers, 
always at the lowest level of the country, and not, like 
Irish bogs, upon hill-tops, as well as elsewhere. Their 
surface is, usually, level and even, as compared with other 
lands in the old States. Their soil, or deposit, is of various 
depth, from one foot to twenty, and is often almost afloat 
with water, so as to shake under the feet, in walking over 
it. 

The subsoil corresponds, in general, with that of the 
surrounding country, but is oftener of sand than clay, and 
not unfrequently, is of various thin strata, indicating an 
alluvial formation. Frogs and snakes find in these swamps 
an agreeable residence, and wild beasts a safe retreat 
from their common foe. Notoriously, such lands are un¬ 
healthful, producing fevers and agues in their neighbor¬ 
hood, often traceable to tracts no larger than a very few 
acres. 

In considering how to drain such tracts, the first 
inquiry is as to the source of the water. What makes 
the land too wet ? Is it the direct fall of rain upon it; 
the influx of water by visible streams, which have no suffi¬ 
cient outlet; the downflow of rain and snow water from 
the neighboring hills; or the bursting up of springs from 
below ? 


16 


362 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Examine and decide, which and how many, of these 
four sources of moisture, contribute to flood the tract in 
question. We assume, that the swamp is in a basin, or, 
at least, is the lowest land of the neighborhood. The 
three or four feet of rain water annually falling upon it, 
unless it have an outlet, must make it a swamp, for there 
can usually be no natural drainage downward, because the 
swamp itself is the lowest spot, and no adjacent land can 
draw off water from its bottom. Of course, there is lower 
land towards the natural outlet, but usually this is narrow, 
and quite insufficient to allow of drainage by lateral 
percolation. Then, always, more or less water must run 
upon the surface, or just below it, from the hills, and 
usually, a stream is found in the swamp, if none pours 
into it from above. 

The first step is a survey, to ascertain the fall over the 
whole, and the next, to provide a deep and sufficient out¬ 
let. Here, we must bear in mind a peculiarity of such 
lands. All land subsides, more or less, by drainage, but 
the soils of which we are speaking, far more than any 
other. Marsh and swamp lands often subside, or settle, 
one or two feet, or even more. Their soil, of fibrous roots, 
decayed leaves, and the like, almost floats; or, at least, 
expands like a sponge ; and when it is compacted, by re¬ 
moving the water, it occupies far less space than before. 
This fact must be kept in mind in all the process. The 
outlet must be made low enough, and the drains must be 
made deep enough, to draw the water, after the subsidence 
of the soil to its lowest point. 

If a natural stream flow through, or from, the tract, it 
will usually indicate the lowest level 5 and the straightening 
and clearing out of this natural drain, may usually be the 
first operation, after opening a proper outlet. Then a 
catch-water open drain, just at the junction of the high 
and low land, entirely round the swamp, will be necessary 


DRAINAGE OF SWAMPS. 


363 


to intercept the water flowing into the swamp. This water 
will usually be found to flow in, both on the surface, and 
beneath it, and in greater or less quantities, according to 
the formation of the adjacent land. This catch-water is 
essential to success. The wettest spot in a swamp is fre¬ 
quently, just at its edge, because there the surface-water is 
received, and because there too, the water that has come 
down on an impervious subsoil stratum, finds vent. It is 
in vain to attempt to lay dry a swamp, by drains, however 
deep, through its centre. The water has done its mischief, 
before it readies the centre. It should be intercepted, 
before it has entered the tract, to be reclaimed. 

This drain must be deep, and therefore, must be wide 
and sloping, so that it may be kept open ; and it should 
be curved round, following the line of the upland to the 
outlet. Often it has been found, in England, that a single 
drain, six or eight feet deep, has completely drained a 
tract of twenty or thirty acres, by cutting off all the sources 
of the supply of water, except that from the clouds. This 
kind of land is very porous and permeable, and readily 
parts with its water, and is easily drained ; so that the fre¬ 
quent drains necessary on uplands, are often quite unne¬ 
cessary. Many instances are given, of the effect of single 
deep drains through such tracts, in lowering the water in 
wells, or entirety drying them, at considerable distances 
from the field of operation. 

When the surface-water and shallow springs have thus 
been cut off, the drainer will soon be able to determine, 
whether he has effected a cure of his dropsical patient. 
Often it will be found, that deep seated springs burst up 
in the middle of these law tracts, furnishing good and pure 
water for use. These, being supplied by high and distant 
fountains, run under our deepest drains, and find vent 
through some fracture of the subsoil. They diffuse their 
ice-cold water through the soil, and prevent the growth 



364 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


of all valuable vegetation. To these, we must apply Elk- 
ington’s system, and hit them right in the eye! by run¬ 
ning a deep drain from some side or central drain, straight 
to them, and drawing off the water low enough beneath 
the surface to prevent injury. A small covered drain with 
two-inch pipes, will usually be sufficient to afford an out¬ 
let to any such spring. 

When we have thus disposed of the water from the sur¬ 
face-flow, the shallow springs and the deep springs, and 
given vent to the water accumulated and ponded in the 
low places, we have than accomplished all that is peculiar 
to this kind of drainage. We have still the water from 
the clouds, which is twice as much as will evaporate from 
a land-surface, to provide for. We assume that this can¬ 
not pass directly down by percolation, because the subsoil 
is already saturated ; and therefore, even if all the other 
sources of wetness are cut off, we shall still have a tract 
of land too wet for wheat and corn. If the swamp be very 
small, these main ditches may sufficiently drain it; but if 
it be extensive, they probably will not. We have seen 
that we have some eighteen or twenty inches of water to 
be disposed of by drainage; so much that evaporation 
cannot remove consistently with good cultivation; and, 
although this amount might, in a very deep peaty soil, per¬ 
colate to a great distance laterally, to find a drain, yet in 
shallow soil resting on a retentive subsoil, drains might be 
necessary at distances similar to those adopted on wet up¬ 
land fields. To this part of the operation, we should, 
therefore, apply the ordinary principles of drainage, put¬ 
ting in covered drains with tiles, if possible, at four feet 
depth or more, ordinarily, and at distances of from forty 
to sixty feet, although four-foot drains at even one hun¬ 
dred feet distance, in peat and black mud, might often be 
found sufficient. 

Through the kindness of Edmund Buffin, Esq., of Yir- 


DRAINAGE OF SWAMPS. 


365 


ginia, we have been furnished with three elaborate and 
valuable essays, on the drainage and treatment of flat and 
wet lands in lower Virginia and North Carolina, published 
in the Transactions of the Virginia State Agricultural 
Society, for 1857. The principal feature of his system is 
based upon his correct knowledge of the geological form¬ 
ation of that district; of the fact in particular, that, under¬ 
lying the whole of that low country, there is a bed of pure 
sand lying nearly level, and filled with water, which may 
be drawn down by a few large deep drains, thus relieving 
the surface-soil of surplus water, by comprehensive but 
simple means. 

We have before referred to Mr. Ruffin as the publisher, 
more than twenty years ago, of “ Elkington’s Theory and 
Practice of Draining, &c., by Johnstone;” and we find in 
his recent essays, evidence of how thoroughly practical 
he has made the system of Elkington in his own State. 
Indeed, we know of no other American writer who re¬ 
cords any instance of marked success in the use of Elking¬ 
ton’s peculiar idea of releasing pent up w T aters by boring. 
Mr. Ruffin, however, has applied, with great success, this 
principle of operation, to the saturated sand-beds which 
underlie the tracts of low land in his district of country. 
These water-beds in the sand lie at depths varying usually 
from four to eight feet below the surface. This surface 
stratum is comparatively compact, and very slowly pervi¬ 
ous to water before it is drained. The water from below, 
is constantly pressing slowly up through it, of course pre¬ 
venting any downward percolation of the rain-water. By 
running deep drains at wide intervals, and boring down 
through this surface stratum with an auger, the pent up 
water below finds vent and gushes up in copious springs 
through the holes, and flows off without coming nearer to 
the surface than the bottom of the drains; thus relieving 
the pressure upward, and lowering the water-line in pro¬ 
portion to the depth of the drains. 


366 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Mr. Ruffin gives an instance of the drying up of a well 
half a mile distant, by cutting a deep drain into this sand- 
bed, and thus lowering its water-line. 

No doubt in many localities in our country, a competent 
geological knowledge may detect formations where this 
principle of drainage may be applied with perfect success, 
and with great economy. 

Is there danger of over-draining swamp lands f In 
speaking of the injury by drainage, we shall treat of this 
question. 

Our conclusions may be briefly stated here. There is 
an impression among English writers, that light peaty soils 
may be too much drained ; but many distinguished drain¬ 
ers doubt the proposition. No doubt there are soils too por¬ 
ous and light to be productive, when first drained. They 
may require a season or two to become compact, and may 
require sand, or clay, or gravel, to give them the requisite 
density ; but these soils would, we believe, be usually 
unproductive if shallow drained. 

In short, our idea is, that, in general, a soil so consti¬ 
tuted as to be productive under any circumstances, will 
retain, by attraction, moisture enough for the crops, though 
intersected by four-foot drains at usual distances ; and that 
cold water pumped up to the roots from a stagnant pool 
. at the bottom, is not, either in nature or art, a successful 
method of irrigation. 

Still we believe that peaty soils may be usually drained 
at greater distances, or by shallower drains, than most up¬ 
lands, because of their more porous nature ; and we should 
advise inexperienced persons not to proceed with a lavish 
expenditure of labor to put in parallel drains at short dis¬ 
tances, till they have watched, for a season, the operation 
of a cheaper system. They may thus attain the desired 
object, with the smallest expense. If the first drains are 
judiciously placed, and are found insufficient, others may 
be laid between the first, until the drainage is complete. 


AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. 


367 


CHAPTER XXIV. 

AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS IN DRAINAGE-DRAINAGE IN 

IRELAND. 

Statement of B. F. Nourse, of Maine.—Statement of Shedd and Edson, of Mass. 

—Statement of H. F. French, of New Hampshire.—Letter of Wm. Boyle, 

Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland. 

It was part of the original plan of this work, to give a 
large number of statements from American farmers of their 
success in drainage; but, although the instances are abun¬ 
dant, want of space limits us to a few. These are given 
with such diagrams as will not only make them intelli¬ 
gible, but, it is hoped, will also furnish good examples of 
the arrangement and modes of executing drains, and of 
laying them down upon plans for future reference. The 
mode adopted by Shedd and Edson, of indicating the size 
of the pipes used, by the number of dots in the lines of 
drains, is original and convenient. It will be seen by 
close attention, that a two-inch pipe is denoted by dots in 
pairs, a three-inch pipe by dots in threes, and so on. 

It is believed that Mr. Xourse’s experiment is one of 
the most thorough and successful works of drainage yet 
executed in America. His plan is upon page 195. 

STATEMENT OF B. F. NOURSE, ESQ. 

Goodales Corner, Orrington, Me., 
Sept. 1st, 1858. 

My dear Sir :—So much depends upon the preliminary surveys and 
“ levels ” for conducting works of thorough-draining and irrigation 
cheaply, yet to obtain the most beneficial results, that a competent per- 


368 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


son, such as an engineer or practiced land-drainer, should be employed 
to make them, if one can be obtained. Unfortunately for me, when I 
began this operation, some years ago, there were no such skilled per¬ 
sons in the country, or I could learn of none professionally such, and 
was forced to do my own engineering. Having thus practically acquired 
some knowledge of it, I use and enjoy a Summer vacation from other 
pursuits, in the prosecution of this ; and this employment, for the last few 
weeks, has delayed my answer to your inquiries. Nor could I sooner 
arrive at the figures of cost, extent, &c., of this season’s w’ork. 

This is expected to be completed in ten days, and then I shall have 


laid, of 

Stone drains, including mains. 702 rods 

Tile drains (two inches, or larger). 1043 11 


In all. 1745 u 


or, about five and one-lialf miles, laying dry, satisfactorily , about thirty- 
five acres. The character and extent of the work will better appear by 
reference to the plan of the farm which I send with this for your in¬ 
spection. 

The earlier portion was fairly described by the Committee of the 
Bangor Hort. Soc.—(See Report, for 1856, of the Maine Board of Agri¬ 
culture.) It was far too costly, as usual in works of a novel character 
conducted without practical knowledge. No part of my draining, 
even that of this season, has been done so cheaply as it ought to be 
done in Maine, and will be done when tiles can be bought at fair prices 
near at hand. I call your attention particularly to this, because the 
magnitude of the cost, as I represent it, ought not to be taken as a ne¬ 
cessary average, or standard outlay per acre, by any one contemplating 
similar improvement, when almost any farmer can accomplish it equally 
well at far less cost. My unnecessary expenditures will not have been 
in vain, if they serve as a finger-post to point others in a profitable way. 

My land had upon its surface, and mingled in its super soil, a 
large quantity of stones, various in size, from the huge boulders, re¬ 
quiring several blasts of powder to reduce them to movable size, to the 
rubble stones which were shoveled from the cart into the drains. To 
make clean fields all these had to be removed, besides the many u heaps ” 
which had been accumulated by the industry of my predecessors. A 
tile-drain needs no addition of stone above the pipe; indeed, the stone 
may be a positive injury, as harboring field vermin, or, if allowed to 
come within two feet of the surface, as obstructing deep tillage, and 
favoring the access of particles of soil upon or into the tile with the 






AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. 


369 


rapid access of water which they promote. Carefully placed to the 
depth of six or eight inches in a four-foot drain, quite small stones are, 
perhaps, useful, and they certainly facilitate the drawing of water from 
the surface. Such was, and still is, with many, the prescribed method 
of best drainage in Scotland, and some parts of England. The in¬ 
creased cost of adding the stone above the tile is obvious : and when 
the width of that drain is enlarged to receive them, the cost is mate¬ 
rially enhanced. Yet such has been my practice, at first, under the im¬ 
pression of its necessity, and all the time from a desire to put to use, and 
out of sight, the small stones with which I was favored in such abun¬ 
dance. The entire cost of moving, and bringing more than 2,500 heavy 
loads of stone, is included in the cost of drains, as set down for the 1,745 
rods. 

Including this part of expense, which is never necessary with tile, 
and cannot be incurred in plain clay soils, or clay loams free of stones, 
the last 700 rods cost an average of 97 cents per rod completed. This 
includes the largest mains ) of which, one of 73 rods was opened four feet 
wide at bottom of the trench, of which the channel capacity is 18 X 18 
= 324 square inches, and others 110 rods of three and one-half and 
three feet width at bottom, all these mains being laid entirely with stone. 
The remainder of the 700 rods was laid with two-inch tile, which cost 
at the farm eighteen dollars per 1,000. These last were opened four 
rods apart, and lay dry about seventeen acres, at a cost, including the 
mains, of $678, or $40 per acre. In this is included every day’s labor 
of man and beast, and all the incidental expenses, nothing being con¬ 
tributed by the farm, which is under lease. 

I infer that an intelligent farmer, beginning aright, and availing him¬ 
self of the use of team and farm labor, when they can best be spared 
from other work—as in the dry season, after haying—or paying fair prices 
for digging his ditches only, and doing the rest of the work from the 
farm, can drain thoroughly at a cost of $20 per acre, drains four rods 
apart, and four feet deep; or at $25 per acre, forty feet apart, and three 
feet nine inches deep. 

My subsoil is very hard, requiring constant use of the pick, and 
sharpening of the picks every day, so that the labor of loosening the 
earth was one-third or one-half more than the throwing out with a 
shovel. The price paid per rod, for opening only, to the depth of three 
and a half feet (or, perhaps, three and three-quarters average.) of a 
width for laying tile, was 25 cents per rod. At this price, the indus¬ 
trious men, skillful with tools, earned $1.12 to $1.25 per day, besides 

16 * 


370 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


board; and they threw out one-third more earth than was really neces¬ 
sary. for “ room to work’ 5 as they said. But they labored hard. 14 hours 
per day. The same men, working in a soil free from stones, and an 
easier subsoil, would, in the same time, open from 50 to 100 per cent, 
more length of ditch. 

The greater part of these drains were laid four rods apart. When 
first trying this distance upon a field, of which the soil was called 
“ springy and cold, 55 and was always too wet in the Spring and early 
Summer for plowing, a partial, rather than “ thorough’ 5 drainage was 
attempted, with the design, at some future day, to lay intermediate 
drains. The execution of that design may yet appear expedient, 
although the condition of soil already obtained, is satisfactory beyond 
expectation. 

Owing to the excess of water that saturated the soil in Spring and 
Fall, the former proprietors of the farm had not attempted the cultiva¬ 
tion of the field alluded to, for many years. Originally producing 
heavy crops of hay, it had been mowed for thirty years or more, and 
was a good specimen of “exhausted land,” yielding one-half or three- 
fourths of a ton of hay per acre. This field is designated in the plan, 
as the “barley field, 1858, 55 lies south-west of the dwelling-house, and 
contains nearly six acres. Its northerly half, being the lower end of 
the field, was drained in 1855, having been Summer-plowed, and 
sowed with buckwheat, which was turned under, when in flower, as a 
fallow crop. The other half was drained in 1856 ; plowed and sub¬ 
soiled the same Fall. In 1857, nearly the whole field was planted with 
roots—potatoes, rutabagas, mangolds, carrots, English turnips, &c.—and 
one acre in corn. For these crops, fair dressings of manure were ap¬ 
plied—say ten or twelve cartloads of barn-manure plowed in, and one 
hundred pounds of either guano or bone-dust harrowed in, or strewed in 
the drill, for each acre ; about fifteen loads per acre of seasoned muck or 
peat were also plowed in. There was a good yield of all the roots ; for 
the corn, the season was unfavorable. Last Spring, a light dressing of 
manure, but all that we could afford, was applied, the whole well 
ploughed, harrowed, seeded to grass with barley, harrowed, and rolled. 
The barley was taken off last week; and, from the five and three-quar¬ 
ter acres, seventeen heavy loads were hauled into the barn, each esti¬ 
mated to exceed a ton in weight. The grain from a measured acre 
was put apart to be separately threshed, and I will advise of its yield 
when ascertained.* This was said, by the many farmers who saw it, 

* This was threshed about the middle of November, and yielded “51 bushels, round 
measure.” The entire field averaged 45 bushels per acre. 


AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. 


371 


including some from the Western States, to be the £c handsomest field of 
grain’ 5 they had ever seen. The young grass looks well: and I hope, 
next Summer, to report a good cut of “ hay from drained land.” 

Last Winter, there were no snows to cover the ground for sleighing 
until March; and, lying uncovered, our fields were all frozen to an un¬ 
usual depth. But, our drains did not cease to run through the Winter. 
And Mr. 0. W. Straw, who works the farm, and was requested to note 
the facts accurately, wrote to me this Spring, the frost came out of 
the drained land about one week first ” (that is, earlier than from the 
undrained land adjacent); and, “ in regard to working condition, the 
drained land was in advance of the undrained, ten days, at least.” The 
absence of snow permitting this unusual depth of frost, had caused a 
rare equality of condition the last Spring, because, until the frost was 
out, the drains would not draw surface-water. Usually, when early 
snows have fallen to protect the ground, and it remains covered through 
the Winter, the frost goes off with the snow, or earlier , and, within a 
few days, the land becomes in good condition for plowing—quite two 
weeks earlier than the driest of my undrained fields, or any others in the 
vicinity. 

These remarks apply to land in which the drains are four rods apart. 
The farm lies with an inclination northerly and easterly, the fall vary¬ 
ing from 1 in 33 to 1 in 8; that in most of the drains laid four rods 
apart, being about 1 in 25. The drains in the u barley field” fall 1 in 
27, average, all affording a rapid run of water, which, from the 
mode of construction, and subsequent subsoiling, finds ready access to 
the drain-channels. Hence, we never observe running water upon the 
surface of any of our drained lands, either during the heaviest rains, or 
when snows are melting, and the wasteful u washing” from the sur¬ 
face, that formerly injured our plowed grounds, has ceased. 

It is fair to suppose that it is the considerable descent which renders 
the drains so effectual at four rods apart; and that where there is but 
slight fall, other circumstances being the same, it would be necessary 
to lay drains much nearer, for equal service. 

The results of one man’s experiments, or practice, whether of success 
or failure, should not be conclusive to another, unless all the circum¬ 
stances are identical. These are ever varying from one farm to another; 
and only a right understanding of the natural laws or principles brought 
into use, can determine what is best in each case. Therefore, a de¬ 
scription of the methods I have used, or any detailed suggestions I may 
give, as the result of experience, would not be worth much, unless 
tested by the well-ascertained rules applicable to them, which men of 


372 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


science and skill have adopted and proved, by the immensely extended 
draining operations in Great Britain, and those begun in this country. 
These are now given in elaborate treatises, and quoted in agricultural 
journals. But they should be made familiar to every farmer, in all 
their practical details, and with methods suited to our country, where 
labor is dear and land cheap, as contrasted with the reversed conditions 
in England, where the practice of u thorough-draining” has so generally 
obtained, and has so largely improved the conditions of both landlord 
and tenant. Your book will do this, and thus do a great good ) for 
draining will greatly enlarge the productive capacity of our land, and, 
consequently, its value, while it will render labor more effective and 
more remunerative to the employer and the employed. 

The fact of increased production from a given quantity of land, by 
draining, being ascertained beyond question, and the measure of that 
increase, at its minimum, being more than the interest at six per cent, 
upon the sum required to effect it—even at $50 per acre—the question 
of expediency is answered. To the owner of tillage lands there is no 
other such safe, sure, and profitable investment for his money. He 
lodges it in a bank that will never suspend payments, and from which 
better than six per cent, dividend can be received annually. 

Very truly, yours, B. F. Nourse. 

Hon. H. F. French, Exeter, N. H. 

STATEMENT OF SHEDD AND EDSON. 

Boston, February 1, 1859. 

Dear Sir :—The plan for a system of thorough drainage, a copy 
of which we send you herewith, was executed for Mr. S. P. Rand, of 
Roxbury. 

An outfall was obtained, at the expense of considerable labor, by 
deepening the Roxbury and Dorchester Brook for a distance of nearly 
a quarter of a mile, about four hundred feet of which was through a 
rocky bottom, which required some blasting. The fall thus obtained 
was only about two inches in the whole distance. 

The fall which can be obtained for the main drain is less than two 
inches per hundred feet, but the lateral drains entering into the main, 
will have a fall varying from two inches to a foot per hundred. 

The contour lines, or lines traced along the ground, intersecting 
points on an equal level, are drawn on this plan, showing a fall of four- 
tenths of a foot, each line being in every part four-tenths of a foot 
lower than the lines above it. Where the lines are near together, the 
fall is greater, as a less horizontal distance is passed over before reach¬ 
ing a point which is four-tenths lower than the line above. 











































































AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. 


373 


It will be seen by the plan, that the fall in the line occupied by the 
main drain is very slight, while the side drains have a fall much 
greater. 

The lateral drains are run in the line of steepest descent, which is, 
of course, at right angles to the general direction of the contour lines. 

The water from the entire system is collected, and escapes at one out¬ 
let into the brook. 

A peep hole is placed at the intersection of the sub-main drain with 
the main, which commands about one-half the entire area—the other, 
half is commanded by the outlet. 

Two-inch tile will be laid in the lateral drains, and three, four, and 
five-inch in the sub-main and main. 

It is quite indispensable, to the successful execution of a plan of 
drainage on land so level as this, that careful measurements be made 
on the ground with an engineer’s level, and such a representation of its 
surface projected as will show to the eye at a glance what all the 
natural inclinations are. The work can then be laid out with ease in 
the best position, and executed in a systematic manner. The time and 
labor which is devoted to such an examination of the ground is well 
spent, and, with the knowledge gained by it, the work can be carried 
on with such economy as to save the original cost of the examination 
many times over. Very truly, yours, 

Shedd & Edson 

Hon. H. F. French, Exeter, N. H. 

STATEMENT OF HENRY F. FRENCH, OF EXETER, N. H. 

The drained field represented in the plan (Fig. 102), contains about 
eight acres. I purchased it in 1846. The upper part of it is sand, 
with underlying clay at depths of from four to ten feet. The field 
slopes towards the river, and, on the slope, the c]ay strata coming out 
to the surface, naturally bring out the water, so that the side hill was 
so wet as to produce cranberries—quite too wet for any hoed crop. At 
the foot of the hill the soil is a stiff clay, with veins of sand and gravel. 
Through the centre was a wet ravine, which served as a natural out¬ 
let for the springs, and which was so full of black alders as to make an 
excellent cover for woodcock. Until the land was drained, this ravine 
was impassable in the hay season even, except by a bridge which I 
built across it. Now it may be crossed at any season and at any point. 

I first attempted to drain the wettest parts with brush drains, run¬ 
ning them into the wet places merely, and succeeded in drying the land 
sufficiently to afford good crops of hay. I laid one brush-drain across 


374 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


the brow of the hill, five feet deep, hoping to cut off* all the water, 
which I supposed ran along upon the surface of the clay. This dried 
the land for a few rods, but the water still ruined the lower parts of the 
field, and the drain produced very little effect upon the land above it. 
In 1856, finding my brush drains quite insufficient, I thorough-drained 
the side-hill on the lower part of the plan at the reader’s left hand, 
at fifty feet distances, up and down the slope, at an average of about 
four feet depth, going five feet deep on the brow of the hill, to cut 
through the brush-drain. I used two-inch sole-tiles for minors, and 
three-inch for the main. 

The effect was instantaneous. The land which, in the Spring of 
1856, had been so wet that it could not, even though partially drained 
with brush-drains, be planted till the 5th of June, was, in 1857, ready 
to work as soon as the snow was off. My farm journal says, under 
date of April 6th, u plowed drained land with double plow two days 
after a heavy storm—dry enough.” I spent that Summer in Europe. 
The land was planted with corn, which produced a heavy crop. I 
find an entry in my journal, on my return, “ My drained land has 
been in good condition—neither too wet nor too dry—all Summer.” 

In the Fall of 1857, I laid about 170 rods in other parts of the field, 
at similar depths and distances, and in 1858 completed the upper part, 
on which is an orchard of apple trees. A part of this orchard was 
originally so wet as to kill the trees the first year, but by brush-drains 
I dried it enough to keep the next set alive. There was no water 
visible at the surface, and the land was dry enough for corn and pota¬ 
toes ; still the trees looked badly, and many were winter-killed. I had 
learned the formation of the earth about my premises, of which I had 
at first no adequate conception, and was satisfied that no fruit tree 
could flourish with its feet in coTl water, even in Winter. All nursery¬ 
men and fruit-growers agree, that land must be well drained for fruit. 
I therefore laid four-foot tile drains between the rows of trees, in this 
apparently dry sand. We found abundance of water, in the driest 
season, at four feet, and it has never ceased to flow copiously. 

I measured accurately the discharge of water from the main which 
receives the drainage of about one and a half acres of the orchard, at a 
time when it gave, what seemed to me an average quantity for the Win¬ 
ter months, when the earth was frozen solid, and found it to be about 
480 barrels per day ! The estimate was made by holding a bucket, 
which contained ten quarts, under the outlet, when it was found that it 
would fill in fifteen seconds, equal to ten gallons per minute; and six 
hundred gallons, or twenty barrels per hour, and four hundred and 
eighty barrels per day. 


AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. 


375 


I have seen the same drain discharge at least four times that quan¬ 
tity. at some times ! The peep-holes give opportunity for inspection* 
and I find the result to he, that the water-table is kept down four feet 
below the surface at all times, except for a day or two after severe 
rain-storms. 

There is an apparent want of system in this plan, partly to be 
attributed to my desire to conform somewhat to the line of the fences, 
and partly to the conformation of the land, which is quite uneven. At 
several points near the ravine, springs broke out, apparently from deep 
fountains, and short drains were run into them, to keep them below the 
surface. 

The general result has been, to convert wet land into early warm 
soil, fit for a garden, to render my place more dry and healthful, and to 
illustrate for the good of the community the entire efficiency of tile- 
drainage. The cost of this work throughout, I estimate at fifty cents 
per rod, reckoning labor at $1 per day, and tiles at $12 per thousand, 
and all the work by hand-tools. I think in a few years, we may do 
the same work at one-half this cost. Further views on this point are 
given in the chapter on the “ Cost of Drainage.” 

After our work was in press, we received from Mr. 
William Boyle, Farmer at the Albert Model Farm in 
Ireland, the paper which is given below, kindly sent in 
reply to a series of questions proposed by the author. 
The Albert Model Farm is one of the Government insti¬ 
tutions for the promotion of agriculture, by the education 
of young men in the science and the practice of farming; 
and from what was apparent, by*ti single day’s examination 
of the establishment in our visit to it in August, 1857, we 
are satisfied of its entire success. The crops then growing 
were equal, if not superior, to any we have seen in any 
country. Much of the land covered by those crops is 
drained land; and having confidence that the true prin¬ 
ciples of drainage for that country must be taught and 
practiced at this institution, we thought it might be 
instructive, as well as interesting to the farmers of 
America, to give them the means of comparison between 
the system there approved, and those others which we 
have described. 


376 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


Had the paper been sooner received, we should have 
referred to it earlier in our book; yet coming as it does, 
after our work was mostly in type, we confess to some 
feeling of satisfaction, at the substantial coincidence of 
views entertained at the Albert Model Farm, with our 
own humble teachings. With many thanks to Mr. Boyle 
for his valuable letter, which we commend to our readers 
as a reliable exposition of the most approved principles of 
land-draining for Ireland, we give the paper entire : 

Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Dublin, 

January 31, 1859. 

To the Hon. Henry F. French, Exeter, N. H. : 

Sir :—Your queries on land-drainage have been too long unanswered. 

I have now great pleasure in sending you, herewith, my views on the 
points noted. # # # 

Pray excuse me for the delay in writing. I am, sir, 

Your obliged and obedient servant, William Boyle. 

LAND DRAINAGE-REPLIES TO QUERIES, ETC. 

Introductory observations. Ireland contains close on to twenty-one 
millions of acres, thirteen and a half millions of which were returned as 
arable land,” in 1841. By £C Arterial” and thorough-drainage, &c., 
effected through loans granted by government, the extent of arable land 
has been increased to fifteen and a half millions of acres. The “ Board 
of Works” has the management of the funds granted for drainage and 
land improvements generally, and competent inspectors are appointed 
to see that the works are property executed. The proprietor, or farmer, 
who obtains a loan may, if competent, claim and obtain the appoint¬ 
ment of overseer on his own property, and thus have an opportunity 
of economically expending the sum which he will have to repay (prin¬ 
cipal and interest) by twenty-two installments. The average cost of 
thorough-drainage, under the Board of Works, has been about £5 per 
statute acre. In 1847, when government granted the first loan for 
land-drainage, tiles were not so easily obtained as at present, nor was 
tile-drainage well understood in this country ‘ and the greater part of 
the drains then made—and for some years after—were either sewered 
with stones, formed into a conduit of various dimensions, and covered 
over with finely-broken stones, or the latter were filled into the bottom 
of the drain, to about one foot in depth, as recommended by Smith, of 
















































•* 



















































DRAINAGE IN IRELAND. 


377 - 


Deanston. The dimensions for minor drains, sewered with stones, were, 
usually, three and a half feet deep, fifteen inches wide at top, and three 
to four inches wide at bottom (distance apart being twenty-one feet); 
and the overseer carried about with him a wooden gauge, of a size to 
correspond, so that the workmen could see at a glance what they had 
to do. These drains are reported to have given general satisfaction; 
and they were cheaply made, as the stones were to be had in great 
abundance in almost every field. On new land, trenching was sometimes 
carried on simultaneously with the drainage; and it very often hap¬ 
pened that the removal of the stones thus brought to the surface, was 
very expensive; but they were turned to profitable account in sewering 
drains and building substantial fences. In almost every case the drains 
were made in the direction of the greatest inclination, or fall of the 
land ; and this is the practice followed throughout the country. Some 
exceptions occur on hillsides , where I have seen the drains laid off at 
an acute angle with the line of inclination. It is not necessary that I 
should explain the scientific reasons for draining in the direction of the 
fall of the land, as that point has been fully treated of, and well 
illustrated, in your article already referred to. I shall now pass on to 
the Queries. 

Depth of drains , and distance apart. There is still a great diversity 
of opinion on these points, and particularly in reference to the drainage 
of stiff clay soils ; some of the most intelligent and practical farmers in 
this country hold to the opinion that, on such soils, the maximum depth 
should not exceed three feet, and the distance apart sixteen to twenty 
feet. On clay loams, having a subsoil more or less free, the general 
practice is, to make the drains three and a half to four feet deep, and at 
twenty-one to thirty feet apart. On lighter soils, having a free subsoil, 
four feet deep and forty feet apart are the usual limitations. This farm 
may be taken as a fair average of the land in Ireland, as a test for drain¬ 
age ; the soil is a deep clay loam; the subsoil a compact mixture of 
strong clay and calcareous gravel, almost free from stones. Thirty miles 
of drains have been made on the farm, the least distance apart being 
twenty-one feet, and the greatest distance thirty feet; the depth in every 
case, three and a half to four feet for minor drains. This drainage has 
given the greatest satisfaction ; for although the greatest part of the 
work was performed by the Agricultural pupils, in training here, we 
have not had occasion to re-make a single drain, except in one inst^ice, 
where the tiles got choked, and which I shall explain hereafter. 

Tiles : Size , Shape , Draining , Capacity , fyc. We use circular pipe 
tiles, of inch and a half bore, for all parallel drains whose length does 


378 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


not exceed one hundred yards, and two-inch pipes for any additional 
length up to one hundred and fifty yards, the greatest length, in my 
opinion, a parallel drain should reach before discharging into a main 
or sub-main drain. We do not find it necessary to use collars on this 
farm, as we have firm ground to place the tiles on, and we can cut the 
drain to fit the tiles exactly. As regards the size of tiles for main and 
sub-main drains, that can only be regulated by the person in charge of 
the drainage at any particular place, after seeing the land opened up 
and the minor drains discharging. As a general rule, a circular pipe of 
three inches internal diameter will discharge the ordinary drainage of 
five or six statute acres, and give sufficient space for the circulation of 
air. It should be observed, however, that this applies to a district 
where the annual rain-fall is from twenty-six to thirty inches, that of 
all Ireland being about thirty-five inches ; besides, we have not the 
immense falls of rain in a few hours that occur in other countries. 
All these points should be carefully considered in estimating the water¬ 
way for drainage. I have said that collars are not used with the tiles 
on this farm, as the bottom of the drains is quite firm and even ; but, 
where the bed for the tile is soft, and the subsoil is of a shifting nature, 
then collars should be used in every case. Collars cost about half the 
price of tiles, which they are made to connect, so that the use of them 
adds one-third to the expense of the sewering material; and, as I have 
already pointed out, I think it quite unnecessary to use them where the 
subsoil is firm , and where the drain can be bottomed to fit the tile. 
Where large pipes are not to be had conveniently for sewering main or 
sub-drains, I find a proportional number of pipes of lesser diameter to 
answer perfectly. It is very desirable to provide branch pipes for con¬ 
necting the minor with the main drains. The branch should be 
socketed to receive the end of the last tile in the minor drain, and the 
point of attachment to the main pipe may be on the top or on the side 
of the latter. If the branch be made to lead the water into the side of 
the main pipe, then it should join the latter at an acute angle, that both 
streams may meet with the least possible opposition of forces. 

Fall necessary in Tile Drainage. I consider one foot in one hundred 
yards the least fall to work upon with safety. 

Securing Outlets. All the outlets from main-drains should be well 
secured against the intrusion of vermin, by a wrought-iron grating, 
buil^ in mason-work. The water may flow into a stone trough pro¬ 
vided with an overflow-pipe, by which the quantity discharged may be 
ascertained at any time, so as to compare the drainage before and after 
rain. &c. 


DRAINAGE IN IRELAND. 


379 


Traps , or Silt Ponds. Where extensive drainage is carried on in 
low-lying districts, and the principal outlet at a considerable distance, 
it may be found necessary to have traps at several points where the silt 
from the tiles will be kept. These traps may be of cast-iron, or mason- 
work, cemented; and provision should be made, by which they can be 
cleaned out and examined regularly—the drainage at these periods also 
undergoing inspection at the different traps. 

Plow-Draining. We have no draining-plows in use in Ireland, 
that I know of; the common plow is sometimes used for marking off 
the drains, cutting the sides, and throwing out the earth to a considera¬ 
ble depth, thereby lessening the manual labor considerably. Efforts 
have been made in England to produce an efficient implement of this 
description • but it would appear there is ample room for an inventive 
Jonathan to walk in for a profitable patent in this department, and thus 

add another to the many Valuable ones brought out in your great 

• 

country. 

Case of Obstruction in Tiles. Some years since, one of the principal 
main-drains on this farm was observed not discharging the water freely, 
as it hitherto had done, after a heavy fall of rain; and the land adjoin¬ 
ing it showed unmistakable signs of wetness. The drain was opened, and 
traced to the point of obstruction, which was found to be convenient to 
a small poplar tree , the rootlets of which made their way into the tiles, 
at the depth of five and a half feet, and completely filled them, in the 
direction of the stream, for several yards. We have some of the tiles 
(horse-shoe) in our museum here, as they were then lifted from the 
drain, showing clearly the formidable nature of the obstruction. 
Another serious case of obstruction has come to my knowledge, 
occasioned by frogs or toads getting into the tiles of the main-drain in 
lar"e numbers, on account of the outlet being insufficiently protected. 
In this case, a large expenditure had to be incurred, to repair the dam¬ 
age done. 

I have not observed any case of obstruction from the roots of our 
cultivated plants. It has been said by some that the rootlets of man¬ 
gold will reach the drains under them; and, particularly, where the 
drains contain most water in rapid motion. I took up the tiles from a 
drain on this farm, in J 54, which had been laid down (by a former 
occupier), about the year ? 44, at a depth not exceeding two-and-a-half 
feet, and not one of these was obstructed in the least degree, although 
parsnips, carrots, cabbages, mangolds, &c., had been grown on this 
field. Obstructions may occur through the agency of mineral springs : 


380 


FARM DRAINAGE. 


but very few cases of this nature are met with, at least in this country. 

I would anticipate this class of obstruction, if from the nature of the 
land there was reason to expect it, by increasing the fall in the drains 
and having traps more frequent, where the main outlets are at a dis¬ 
tance to render them necessary. In my opinion, the roots of trees are 
the great intruders to be guarded against, and more particularly the 
soft -wooded sorts, such as poplars, willows, alders, &c. The distance 
of a drain from a tree ought always to be equal to the height of the 
latter. 

Tiles flattening in the drying process. With this subject, I am not 
practically familiar. In most tile-works, the tiles, after passing through 
the moulding-machine, are placed horizontally on shelves, which 
rise one above another to any convenient height, on which the tiles 
are dried by means of heated flues which traverse the sheds where 
the work is carried on; or they are allowed to dry without artificial 
heat I prefer the tiles prepared by the latter method, as, if sufficient 
time be given them to be well dried, they will burn more equally, and 
be more durable. The tiles will flatten more or less for the first day 
or two on the shelves, after which they are rolled. This is done by 
boys (who are provided with pieces of wood of a diameter equal to the 
bore of the tile when made), who very soon learn to get over a large 
number daily. The “roller” should have a shouldered handle at¬ 
tached, the whole thickness of which should not be greater than that 
of the tile. The shoulder is necessary to make the ends of the tiles 
even, that there may be no very open joints when they are placed in a 
drain. Once rolled, the tiles are not likely to flatten again, if the 
operation be performed at the proper time. 

As good tiles as I ever saw were dried in a different way, and not 
rolled at all. As they were taken from the machine—six at a time— 
each carrier passed off with his tray, and placed them on end carefully, 
upon an even floor. When five or six rows of tiles were thus placed, 
the whole length of the drying-house, a board was set on edge to keep 
them from falling to one side; then followed five or six other rows of 
tiles, and so on, till the drying-ground was filled. 

This was the plan adopted in a tilery near Dublin, some years ago. 
It is only a few days since I examined some of the tiles made at 
these works, which had been taken from a drain, where they had been 
in use for nine years ; and the clear ringing sound produced by strik¬ 
ing them against each other, showed what little effect that length of 
time produced upon them, and how well they had been manufactured. 


DRAINAGE IN IRELAND. 


381 


Cost of Tiles. We have recently paid at the works— 


For H inch pipes 
“ 2 “ 

“ 3 “ 


25s. 

45s. 


17s. 6d. per thousand. 


« 


u 


Each tile one foot in length, and the one and one-half-inch pipes weigh¬ 
ing 16 cwt. per thousand. 

One of the great difficulties in connection with tile-making is, in 
many districts, to procure clay sufficiently free from lime. Tiles are 
very often sold by sample, sent a considerable distance, and it be¬ 
comes necessary to to test them, which we do (for lime) by placing 
them in water for a night; and. if lime is present in the tile, it will, 
of course, swell out, and break the latter, or leave it in a riddled 
state. 

I have now endeavored to answer the queries in your postscript, 
and I have carefully avoided enlarging on some points in them with 
which your readers are already familiar. If I shall have thrown a 
single ray of additional light on this subject across the Atlantic, I 
shall be amply repaid for any attention I have given to thorough- 
drainage during the past twelve years. 

I should here observe that I mislaid amongst my papers the por¬ 
tion of your letter containing the queries (it was a separate sheet), 
and it has not as yet turned up, so that I had to depend on a rather 
treacherous memory to keep the queries in my mind’s eye. It is highly* 
probable, therefore, that I have overlooked some of them. This circum¬ 
stance was the chief cause of the delay in writing. 

You are quite at liberty to make any use you please of this com¬ 
munication. 


William Boyle. 





INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Absorption of moisture.303, 304, 322 

“ Fertilizing substances.... 268 

Aeration.269, 276 

Albert Model Farm.375 

American experiments.367 

Anderson, J. F...112 

Arrangement of drains.173 

Artesian Wells. S3 

Attraction, adhesive.301 

“ capillary.302 

“ of soils for vapor.304 

Auger, Elkington's.35, 246 

Bacbe, Prof.. 65 

Back water.181 

Barn cellar.356-359 

Bergen, Mr.199 

Birmingham spades.240 

Bletonism. 36 

Blodgett, Lorin. 51, 59 

* Bogs....?.. 91 

Boning-rod. 234 

Bore, form of.129 

Boring.... ..35,365 

Boring tools..35, 346 

Boyle, Win.375 

Branch pipes.:.196, 378 

Bricks, draining.121, 144 

“ cost of..204 

Brush drains.104, 105 

Capacity of pipes.131, 132, 134, 201 

Capillary attraction.302 

Cellars, drainage of.351--359 

Challoner’s Level.235 

Clay soil. 167, 329 

Clays, drainage of.322-332 

Clays, cracking of..275, 324-331 

Collars... .47,126,127,128, 219, 316, 320,378 

Cold from evaporation.63, 272 

Cost of drainage.211-224, 309, 376 

“ tiles.201-205, 3S1 

Count Eumford.272, 273, 2S7 

Country Gentleman .16, 198, 329 

Crisp, Thomas.203 

Custis, W. P. 18 

Dams.333, 347 

Deanston system. 37 

Delafield.46, 76, 168 


PAGE. 

Denton, J. Bailey.21, 161 

“ Letter from.200 

Depth of drains.164»-173, 326, 328, 377 

Directions how to lay drains.252-258 

Dew, cause of..305 

“ increased by drainage.284, 306 

“ imparts warmth.307 

Dew-point.65,‘66, 306 

Dickinson, A. B.108 

Direction of drains.146-155 

Distance “ 155-164, 377 

Ditch diggers.247-251 

Drainage acts.-.349 

“ companies.333 

“ effects of..258-276 

“ methods of..99-120 

“ water of.60, 61, 339 

Drainage, will it pay ?. 95 

Drain bricks.121, 144 

Drains of brush. 104 

“ larch tubes.Ill 

“ plug.106 

“ of poles.113 

“ rails.112 

“ stones. 114-119 

“ wedge.110 

“ run before rain.269, 270 

Drought, drains prevent.281-286, 300 

Dry Wells.197, 198 

Durability of drains.141-145 


Elkington’s system.27, 33, 240, 365 

Embankment. 18 

Emerson, It. W.15, 23 

Engineering.163, 213 

England. 19 , 340 

“ wet land in. 89 

English tools.243 

Evaporation.48, 61, 62, 293-297 

cold from.63, 272, 293-297 

from land.62, 69, 72 

“ water.62, 69, 73 

Excavation.165 

“ cost of.165,201,214 

“ table of.216 

Experiments, American.367, 376 


41 

44 

44 


Factory reservoirs.341-343 

Fall in drains.174, 378 

Fences.211, 346 

Filtration.41, 60, 61 


382 



































































































INDEX 


383 


PAGE. 

Filtration tables of.70, 71 

Fitzherbert. 23 

Flat-bottomed tiles.129 

Flo wage, effects of..333, 341, 343, 346 

Flushing drains.186 

Freezing out.75,262 

“ of pipes.171 

French’s plan.873 

Friction of water.131, 133 

Frost.67, 143, 170, 172, 297, 299 

Fruit trees.298, 374 

Furrows.195 


,, . , PAGE. 

Moisture, sources of.78 

Morris, Edward. 60 

Moles. 104 , 116 

Mole drains. 107 

Mole Plow.108 

Moon, influence of. ’306 


Nash, Prof. 199 

Nene Biver.’ *" '337 

New York Park.47, 219 

Nourse,B. F.-....285, 367 

“ statement and plan of.. 195, 367, 372 


Germination.276-281 

Gillis, Lieut. 65 

Gisborne.122, 126 

Gravitation. 131 

Grading drains.233 

Gratings at outlets.183 

Great Britain.89 

“ W’et lands in. 89 

Greeley, Horace. 88 

Gauge.246 

Haarlaem, Lake. 19 

Headers.153, 154 

Heat in wet land. 288-290 

“ water..272, 273 

Hobbs, Doctor.51, 54, 56 

Holyoke, Doctor. 62 

Horse-shoe tiles.124 

Implements..225, 252 

Indications of moisture. 93 

Injury by drainage.808, 313 

Ireland, drainage in.376 

Irrigation. 14 

Irish spade.238 

Johnson, B. P. 17 

Johnston, John...46, 168, 256, 262, 328, 329 

Johnstone.28, 31, 120 

Joints, how covered. 255 

“ spaces at.134, 140 

Junction of drains.195, 196 

Keythorpe system.40 

Klippart, J. II. 16 

Land Drainage Companies.349 

Larch tubes. Ill 

Lardner, Dr.270 

Laying out drains.*.213, 253 

Laying tiles.219, 252-258 

Legal rights to water.85, S 6 , 346 

Legislation.340 

Levelling instruments.229-235 

Lincolnshire fens.19, 310 

Lines, use of.233, 253 

Lord Lincoln’s Act.347 

Madden, Doctor.276 

Mains, position and size of..190-194 

Mangolds, obstruction by.316, 317, 379 

Mapes, Prof.16, 167 

Massachusetts, laws.347 

Mechi, Sheriff.260, 339 

Methods of drainage.99 

Mice.104, 116, 315 

Mill dams.340-344 

Mill streams.S9, 333 

Minors. 194 


Obstruction of drains.313-32C 

“ by sand.313,321 

by frogs, &c.183, 315, 379 

peroxide of iron..317 

“ roots.315, 316, 879 

“ filling at joints.319 

Open ditches.99, 263 

“ objections to. 101 , 102 

Opening ditches.252 

Outfalls. 345 

Outlets.176-183, 219, 252, 257, 315, 378 

Overdraining peats.309, 366 

Parkes, Josiah..;.25, 38, 40, 128 

Paul’s ditcher.250 

Peat tiles. 113 

Peats, overdraining of.309, 366 

Peep-holes.187, 188, 32J, 373 

Peroxide of iron.. 317 

Pettibone, J. S.329 

Picks.245 

Pipes.47, 122, 123, 144 

“ capacity of.-131-138, 159, 191, 193 

“ cost in England.201,204 

“ “ United States_202-205,218 

“ position of.190-194 

Pipe layer.244, 245 

Plans of drains.195, 372, 377 

“ importance of.161 

Plow, use of.253, 379 

Plow, Fowler’s drain.247, 248 

“ Shanghae.109 

Paul’s ditcher.250 

Eoutts.251 

Plug drains.107 

Pole drain.113 

Pratt’s Ditch digger.248, 249 

Pressure of water... 131, 132, 331, 332, 356 

“ water of. 84 

Process of draining.252-258 

Puddling.198, 323 

Pulverization.260, 282, 299 


Bain. 

Eain-fall. 

Bain-fall, tables of... 

Eelief pipes. 

Eeservoirs. 

Eidge and furrow.... 

Eolling pipes. 

Boots, length of. 

“ obstruction by 

Bound pipes. 

Bumford, Count. 

Euffin, Edmund, Esq. 
Eye and Derwent... 


48, 158, 159, 284 

.50, 15S, 378 

.53-60, 70-73 

.184, 186 

.341, 343 

.'.'.‘.205,380 
....258, 259, 283 

_315, 316, 379 

.47, 122 

....272, 273, 287 

.29, 364 

.344 


Saturation 


66 




































































































































384 


INDEX 


PAGE. 

Scoops.244 

Screens at outlets.183 

Season lengthened.261 

Shallow drains.168 

Shanghae plow.109 

Shedd. and Edson.21, 51, 372 

Shoulder drain.110 

Shovels.236, 237 

Silt basin.186, 379 

Sink holes.198 

Size of tiles.190, 377 

Smith, of Deanston.26, 37 

Snow, fall of . 59 

Sole-tile.125 

Spades.235, 236, 240-242 

Spirit level.230 

Springs.78-83 

“ drainage of.. 34 

“ run before rain.270-271 

“ how to preserve.189 

Staff and target.231 

Stagnant water. 93 

Stone drains.114-119, 377 

“ cost of.114,222 

Stones above tiles.118 

Streams affected by drainage.333-340 

Subsoil plow.169 

Suhsoiler, Marcus and Co.’s.107 

Surface washing prevented.261 

Swallow-holes.197, 198 

Swamps.91, 360 

“ drainage of..360-363 

Swamp-lands...17 

Swan, R. J.!.168 

System, importance ok.160, 173 

Tables of evaporation.72, 73 

“ excavation.216 

“ filtration.70, 71 

“ rain-fall.53-59, 71-73 

“ of tiles to acre.220 

“ number of rods.220 

“ capacity of pipes.135-138 

Talpa.23 


PAGE. 


“ underground.... 187, 288, 291 

“ for vegetation.271 

Thermometer, wet and dry.64, 65 

Thomas, J. J. 229 

Tile-drainage. .120 

Tiles, cost in England.201, 212 

“ “ United States.201-205 

“ forms of.122-130 

“ length of_... . 221 

“ size of..130-138 

“ weight of..219 

“ number to the acre.220 

Tile machines.46, 202-210 

Tile-works.47, 121 

Tools.225-246 

Tops and bottoms.140, 319, 379 

Traps.185, 186, 379, 880 

Telocity of water.131 

"Vermin.104 

Virginia.18, 364 

Warder, Doctor. 346 

Water, how it enters. .138, 320 

“ stagnant.93 

“ of drainage, uses of..189, 339 

“ velocity of.131 

Water passage.129 

Water-line. 139 

Water-powers.333, 335, 841-345 

Water of pressure.84, 161 

Water, pressure of..84, 140, 141 

“ rights in.85, 86 

Wedge drain.110, 236 

Weight of tiles.219, 381 

Wells, drainage into.197-199 

“ dried by drains. 85, 366 

Well and relief-pipe.1S4-186 

Well with silt trap.186 

Wharncliffe system. 44 

Width of ditekes..215-218, 226 

Wright, Gov. 17 

• 

Yeomans, T. G.46, 108 


•' 0 6 L P 

























































































4 
















































